Al-Nusra Front (Hayat Tahrir al-Sham)

Overview

Executive Summary:

Al-Nusra Front is an internationally sanctioned terrorist group, one of the strongest insurgent groups in Syria, and a formerly open al-Qaeda affiliate that seeks to replace the Assad regime in Syria with an Islamic state. Operating as part of the Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) coalition since January 2017,Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda and allies announce ‘new entity’ in Syria,” Long War Journal, January 28, 2017, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/01/al-qaeda-and-allies-announce-new-entity-in-syria.php. al-Nusra Front stands accused of serving as a base for global al-Qaeda operations.Patricia Zengerle and Mark Hosenball, “U.S. Spy Chiefs Say Number of Foreign Militants in Syria Rises,” Reuters, January 29, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/29/us-usa-security-syria-idUSBREA0S1XL20140129. In the years since its formation in 2011, the Front has gradually amassed and maintained control of territory throughout Syria.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Komar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45. As of late 2019, the Front controlled or administered all of the Syrian opposition-held parts of Idlib, north Hama, and west Aleppo.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 6th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 6, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/06/syrian-war-daily-6th-of-january-2019/#more-10014; “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Takes Over Idlib After Ceasefire Deal,” Asharq al-Awsat (London), January 10, 2019, https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1540261/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-takes-over-idlib-after-ceasefire-deal; Joško Barć, “Syrian War Daily – 10th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 10, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/10/syrian-war-daily-10th-of-january-2019/#more-10029. By early 2020, Idlib was the only Syrian province still under rebel control.Zulfiqar Ali, “Syria: Who's in control of Idlib?,” BBC News, February 18, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45401474.

Originally al-Qaeda’s official affiliate in Syria, al-Nusra Front has since claimed to have dissociated entirely from the international terrorist organization, despite the Front’s long and proven history of serving as its loyal affiliate. On July 28, 2016, al-Qaeda released an audio statement giving the Front formal permission to break ties if the link was “conflicting with [the Front’s] unity and working as one body.”Lisa Barrington and Suleiman Al-Khalidi, “Al Qaeda tells Syrian branch Nusra Front it can drop links,” Reuters, July 28, 2016, http://news.trust.org/item/20160728110801-ogl17; Cole Bunzel, “Abandoning al-Qaida: Tahrir al-Sham and the Concerns of Sami al-‘Uraydi,” Jihadica, May 12, 2017, http://www.jihadica.com/abandoning-al-qaida/. Al-Nusra Front leader Abu Muhammad al-Golani declared a formal split from al-Qaeda after thanking “our brothers, the commanders of al-Qa’eda...” and announcing the group’s name change from Jabhat al-Nusra, Arabic for “the Victory Front”, to Jabhat Fateh al-Sham, “the Conquest of the Levant Front.”Thomas Joscelyn, “Analysis: Al Nusrah Front Rebrands Itself as Jabhat Fath Al Sham,” Long War Journal, July 28, 2016, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/07/analysis-al-nusrah-front-rebrands-itself-as-jabhat-fath-al-sham.php. Analysts had long surmised that a break from al-Qaeda, however artificial, could enable al-Nusra Front to attract more funding from Gulf states like Qatar, consolidate local support, and present itself as a legitimate insurgent group in Syria.Bassem Mroue, “AP EXPLAINS: Why Syria’s al-Qaida may be considering a split,” Associated Press, July 27, 2016, https://apnews.com/d10d759d35824b70b47501d85f0ff8c3; Lisa Barrington and Suleiman Al-Khalidi, “Al Qaeda tells Syrian branch Nusra Front it can drop links,” Reuters, July 28, 2016, http://news.trust.org/item/20160728110801-ogl17.

To these ends, al-Nusra Front announced on January 28, 2017, that it would dissolve and be subsumed under a new, larger Syrian Islamist group, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (“Assembly for the Liberation of the Levant” or HTS).“Tahrir al-Sham: Al-Qaeda’s Latest Incarnation in Syria,” BBC News, February 12, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38934206. HTS’s initial leader was Hashim al-Sheikh, the former leader of fellow Islamist faction Ahrar al-Sham.“Tahrir al-Sham: Al-Qaeda’s latest incarnation in Syria,” BBC News, February 12, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-38934206. While al-Nusra Front continues to operate under the HTS name, Sheikh resigned from his post on October 1, 2017, and the group has suffered dozens of defections.“الجولاني قائداً مؤقتاً لهيئة "تحرير الشام".. وهذا مصير قائدها السابق,” Internet Archive, October 2, 2017, https://web.archive.org/web/20180119234654/http://www.huffpostarabi.com/2017/10/02/story_n_18159996.html; “Weekly Conflict Summary September 28 – October 4, 2017,” Carter Center, October 4, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.09.28-10.04.pdf. Analysts estimated that by September 2017 HTS had reverted back to its core of about 10,000 fighters, most of them belonging to al-Nusra Front.Aron Lund, “A Jihadist Breakup in Syria,” Foreign Affairs, September 15, 2017, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017-09-15/jihadist-breakup-syria. By the end of 2018, HTS had an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 fighters.Zulfiqar Ali, “Syria: Who’s in control in Idlib?,” BBC News, February 18, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45401474; Mariya Petkova, “After the Sochi agreement, HTS is facing internal divisions,” Al Jazeera, September 27, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/turkey-idlib-180924191442969.html. By the end of 2021, al-Nusra Front had an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 fighters.“Country Reports on Terrorism 2020,” U.S. Department of State, December 2021, 295, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Country_Reports_on_Terrorism_2020.pdf.

For years before the announced split, however, Golani had reaffirmed his group’s allegiance to al-Qaeda. Al-Nusra Front’s founder, the late ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, claimed he dispatched Golani and others—then al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) fighters—into Syria in 2011 in order to exploit the power vacuum stemming from the country's civil war.Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda in Iraq, Al Nusrah Front Emerge as Rebranded Single Entity,” Long War Journal, April 9, 2013, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/04/the_emir_of_al_qaeda.php#ixzz3Mw15S2jb. The United States confirms this claim, maintaining that al-Nusra Front was formed by AQI to “hijack the struggles of the legitimate Syrian opposition to further its own extremist ideology.”“Treasury Sanctions Al-Nusrah Front Leadership in Syria and Militias Supporting the Asad Regime,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 11, 2012, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1797.aspx. In April 2013, after Baghdadi unilaterally claimed to subsume al-Nusra Front into AQI, now known as ISIS, Golani broke ties with Baghdadi and reaffirmed his allegiance to al-Qaeda central.“Syria Crisis: Al-Nusra Pledges Allegiance to Al-Qaeda,” BBC News, April 10, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22095099.

Despite the group’s origins in Iraq and historical deference to al-Qaeda, al-Nusra Front has branded itself as a native rebel group with foreign experience. In Syria, the group continues to profess its goal of toppling the Assad regime and establishing an Islamic state in its place, albeit incrementally. Trying to consolidate local support, al-Nusra Front has adopted military and outreach strategies from al-Qaeda-linked jihadist Abu Musab al-Suri: participating in numerous Syrian-based coalitions and collaborating with other Islamist, and occasionally secular, rebel groups to carry out joint attacks against Assad forces.Hassan Hassan, “A Jihadist Blueprint for Hearts and Minds Is Gaining Traction in Syria,” National (Abu Dhabi), March 4, 2014, http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/a-jihadist-blueprint-for-hearts-and-minds-is-gaining-traction-in-syria. Al-Nusra Front, and then HTS, also operated a civil administrative wing, called the “Public Services Administration,” which provided basic administrative needs and security and governed several rebel-controlled towns under various forms of Islamic law.Agnes Favier, Luigui Narbone, and Virginie Collombier, Inside Wars: Local Dynamics of Conflicts in Syria and LibyaFt these (Fiesole: European University Institute, 2016), 13-14http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/41644/Inside%20wars_2016.pdf. On November 2, 2017, HTS announced the formation of the “Salvation Government,” a civilian-run administrative and political body in Idlib chaired by Mohammad al-Sheikh. HTS reportedly handed over control of its Public Services Administration to the Salvation Government.Sam Heller, “Turkey Through the Syrian Looking Glass,” Century Foundation, November 28, 2017, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/turkey-syrian-looking-glass/; “شاهد .. الإعلان عن تشكيل حكومة الإنقاذ في إدلب برئاسة"محمد الشيخ,” YouTube video, 16:29, posted by “ نداء سوريا,” November 2, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5orACzyc_G8. While the two maintain they are separate from each other, HTS has described its relationship to the Salvation Government as a partnership. HTS has subsequently sought to moderate its image in a bid to convince locals and international actors it can be a responsible partner in governance.Kareem Fahim, “Former al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria seeks to soften its brand,” Washington Post, January 2, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/01/02/syria-idlib-hts-qaeda-militants/. To present itself as a legitimate alternative to the Syrian government, HTS has sought to coopt Syrian tribal leaders to build cooperative relationships against the Syrian government.Mohammed Hardan, “HTS finesses tribes in Syria’s Idlib,” Al-Monitor, May 26, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/05/hts-finesses-tribes-syrias-idlib. HTS has also reframed al-Nusra Front’s violent conflict with ISIS as legitimate counterterrorism operations.Aaron Y. Zelin, “Jihadi ‘Counterterrorism:’ Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Versus the Islamic State,” CTC Sentinel, February 2023, https://ctc.westpoint.edu/jihadi-counterterrorism-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-versus-the-islamic-state/.

Although the group has succeeded in embedding itself in the Syrian insurgency, al-Nusra Front remains committed to employing terrorist tactics in order to secure an Islamic state. Since its founding, al-Nusra Front has conducted formal military campaigns, assassinations, hostage takings, and ‘lone wolf’ operations, including suicide bombings. By June 2013, the Front had claimed responsibility for 57 out of then-70 suicide attacks during Syria’s civil war.Bill Roggio, “Suicide Bombers Kill 14 in Damascus,” Long War Journal, June 11, 2013, http://www.longwarjournal.org/threat-matrix/archives/2013/06/suicide_bombers_kill_14_in_dam.php. The group has since continued to carry out its signature suicide bombings in Syria and expanded its operations into neighboring Lebanon after Hezbollah joined the war in mid-2013. “Nusra Front, Syrian rebels attack government forces near Aleppo, gain ground,” Reuters, April 2, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN0WZ0O5; Al Jazeera, “Nusra Front claims Lebanon suicide attack,” Internet Archive, January 11, 2015, https://web.archive.org/web/20150308041447/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2015/01/fatal-blast-lebanon-ends-lull-attacks-2015110194313121358.html.

In Lebanon, al-Nusra Front has sought to stoke sectarian divisions with suicide bombings against civilian centers like Beirut and Hezbollah strongholds like Hermel, along Lebanon’s northeastern border with Syria.“Nusra Front attacks Hezbollah outposts near Arsal,” Daily Star (Beirut), June 2, 2015, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2015/Jun-02/300248-nusra-front-attacks-hezbollah-outposts-near-arsal.ashx; “Jabhat al-Nusra claims deadly Lebanon bombing,” Al Jazeera, February 1, 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/02/al-nusra-front-claims-deadly-lebanon-bombing-201421221112955650.html; Now, “Bombings in Lebanon since 2011,” Internet Archive, September 1, 2016, , https://web.archive.org/web/20170201171601/http://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/reportsfeatures/535852-vehicle-explosions-in-lebanon-since-2011. Al-Nusra Front also employs arbitrary detention and torture in order to silence its critics and opposition activists. According to a Human Rights Watch report, HTS detained more than 184 people in Idlib in the last three months of 2018.“Syria: Arrests, Torture by Armed Group,” Human Rights Watch, January 28, 2019, https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/01/28/syria-arrests-torture-armed-group. Other human rights organizations accuse HTS of arresting at least 622 people between January 2017 and August 2019.Alaa Nassar, “Hijacking of the “freedom revolution”: HTS imprisons activists in northwest Syria (interactive map),” Syria Direct, September 15, 2019, https://syriadirect.org/news/hijacking-of-the-%E2%80%9Cfreedom-revolution%E2%80%9D-hts-imprisons-activists-in-northwest-syria-interactive-map/. As of early 2022, the United Nations and human rights groups continue to accuse HTS of mass arrests without charge and torture of detainees, charges HTS denies.Priyanka Boghani, “Syrian Militant and Former Al Qaeda Leader Seeks Wider Acceptance in First Interview With U.S. Journalist,” PBS, April 2, 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/abu-mohammad-al-jolani-interview-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-syria-al-qaeda/.

Al-Nusra Front attracted the largest contingency of foreign fighters to Syria after ISIS, reportedly consisting of 3,000 to 4,000 foreigners as of late 2018.Mariya Petkova, “After the Sochi agreement, HTS is facing internal divisions,” Al Jazeera, September 27, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/turkey-idlib-180924191442969.html. HTS regularly engaged in violent clashes with other rebel groups in northern Syria and conducted operations to arrest civilian protesters.Ryan Browne, “Report: Syria’s al-Nusra ‘more dangerous’ than ISIS,” CNN, January 26, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/25/politics/al-qaeda-al-nusra-isis-threat-experts/; Noor Nahas, “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Attempting to Consolidate Power Ahead of Idlib Offensive,” Bellingcat, August 22, 2018, https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2018/08/22/hts-consolidation/. As of December 2024, there are approximately 30,000 HTS fighters.Sirwan Kajjo, “A look at groups that captured Syria’s Aleppo,” Voice of America, December 2, 2024, https://www.voanews.com/a/a-look-at-groups-that-captured-syria-s-aleppo/7884709.html.

HTS continues to align with rebel fighters through the formation of various offensive coalitions. On November 27, 2024, rebel forces advanced into Aleppo and its surrounding villages, launching the largest offensive against the Syrian government in years. The offensive, dubbed Operation Deterrence of Aggression, was launched by a rebel coalition called Military Operations Command, which is primarily led by HTS. The HTS-led rebels were also assisted by HTS-affiliated groups such as the Uzbek group Katibat al Tawhid wal Jihad (KIJ), the Uyghur Ansar al-Tawhid (AaT), the Chechen Ajnad Kavkaz (AK), and the Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP).“Pro-Jihadi Account On X Documents Participation Of Foreign Jihadi Groups In Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS)-Led Campaign In Aleppo, Syria,” Middle East Media Research Institute, December 2, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/pro-jihadi-account-x-documents-participation-foreign-jihadi-groups-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-led. Assad-backed forces and their Russian allies swiftly launched airstrikes on Aleppo and other rebel-held areas. On December 2, Iran-backed militias based in Iraq were deployed to Syria as reinforcements. Among the Iraqi militias are fighters from Kata’ib Hezbollah, Badr Organization, and Harakat Hezbollah al-Nujaba. The rebels quickly seized control of large swathes of land across the western and northwestern provinces of Hama, Idlib, and Aleppo, including critical infrastructure including the airport and military academy of Aleppo.Eyad Kourdi, Tim Lister, Sophie Tanno, Haley Britzky and Raja Razek, “Syrian and Russian jets step up strikes on rebels after opposition seizes much of Aleppo,” CNN, December 2, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/12/01/middleeast/syrian-regime-airstrikes-opposition-forces-intl/index.html; Willem Marx, “Who are the rebels who have seized control of Aleppo, Syria?,” NPR, December 2, 2024, https://www.npr.org/2024/12/02/nx-s1-5211873/hts-islamist-syria-aleppo-assad-hayat-tahrir-al-sham; Alexander Smith, “What’s happening in Syria? How an old conflict in the Middle East erupted again,” NBC News, December 2, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/syria-civil-war-rebels-aleppo-russia-iran-middle-east-conflict-rcna182406; Mostafa Salem, “Syrian rebels have taken Aleppo, the country’s second biggest city. Here’s who they are,” CNN, December 3, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/12/02/middleeast/rebel-groups-syria-explainer-intl/index.html; “Iran Update, December 2, 2024,” Institute for the Study of War, December 2, 2024, https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-december-2-2024.

On December 7, 2024, the HTS-led rebels advanced into Damascus, seizing the capital and effectively putting an end to the Assad family’s 50-year dictatorship. Bashar Assad relinquished the presidency and fled to Russia, where he was granted asylum. In a statement released by the Russian Foreign Affairs Ministry, Assad reportedly left “instructions to transfer power peacefully.”Bill Hutchinson, “Ousted Syrian President Bashar Assad flees to parts unknown as rebels declare country is ‘free of the tyrant,’” ABC News, December 8, 2024, https://abcnews.go.com/International/where-is-bashar-al-assad/story?id=116570928. Prime Minister Ghazi al-Jalali also released a statement claiming he would not leave Syria unless it is in a peaceful manner that would ensure “the continued functioning of public institutions and state facilities, promoting security and reassurance for our fellow citizens.”Bill Hutchinson, “Ousted Syrian President Bashar Assad flees to parts unknown as rebels declare country is ‘free of the tyrant,’” ABC News, December 8, 2024, https://abcnews.go.com/International/where-is-bashar-al-assad/story?id=116570928. Al-Jalali further stated that the government was ready to cooperate with “any leadership chosen by the Syrian people.”Bill Hutchinson, “Ousted Syrian President Bashar Assad flees to parts unknown as rebels declare country is ‘free of the tyrant,’” ABC News, December 8, 2024, https://abcnews.go.com/International/where-is-bashar-al-assad/story?id=116570928. After seizing the capital, HTS freed thousands of individuals detained at the Sednaya military prison on the outskirts of Damascus. Despite their success, HTS did not immediately provide detailed statements on how they intend to govern the country but did release a statement promising “not to settle scores or seek revenge.”Ammar Cheikh Omar, Carol E. Lee, and Corky Siemaszko, “Syrian rebels capture Damascus as President Assad flees the country,” NBC News, December 8, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/syrian-rebels-claim-captured-capital-damascus-rcna183263; Antoinette Radford, “The Assad regime ruled Syria for 50 years. Here’s how it fell in less than two weeks,” CNN, December 9, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/12/09/middleeast/timeline-syria-assad-regime-toppled-intl/index.html; Alexander Smith, “What to know about Assad's fall and what might happen next in Syria,” NBC News, December 9, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/syria-assad-fall-rebels-hts-what-now-rcna183401.

In a December 29, 2024, broadcast interview on what changes the Syrian public can expect in upcoming years, HTS leader Golani warned that Syrians might have to wait a year to see improvements to public services and even longer to participate in free and fair elections. Golani further elaborated that legitimate elections could occur only after a comprehensive population census and the rewriting of the country’s constitution, which could take up to three years.Sofia Ferreira Santos, “New elections could take up to four years, Syria rebel leader says,” BBC News, December 29, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4g29e1lejvo. Despite promises of free and fair elections, Golani declared himself president of Syria on January 29, 2025. During a meeting of armed factions in Damascus, Golani abolished the constitution and dissolved Syria’s parliament, army, and security agencies. Accordingly, all rebel groups, along with HTS, would be dissolved and absorbed into state institutions. Golani further announced the formation of a temporary legislative council to help govern the country until a new constitution is enacted.“Syria’s de facto leader declares himself president, abolishes constitution,” Washington Post, January 29, 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/01/29/israel-gaza-war-ceasefire-hostages-hamas-steve-witkoff/; David Gritten, “Sharaa vows to pursue criminals as Syria's transitional president,” BBC News, January 31, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8d9r0vg6v7o. In his first presidential address on January 31, Golani claimed that following his suspension of the country’s constitution, he would issue a “Constitutional Declaration” that would serve as a “legal reference.”David Gritten, “Sharaa vows to pursue criminals as Syria's transitional president,” BBC News, January 31, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8d9r0vg6v7o; Jennifer Holleis, “Syria: Political roadmap approves new president amid reforms,” Deutsche Welle, January 31, 2025, https://www.dw.com/en/syria-political-roadmap-approves-new-president-amid-sweeping-reforms/a-71475211. He also announced the formation of a committee tasked with preparing the National Dialogue Conference, a discussion platform intended to listen to and aggregate various political viewpoints that will subsequently inform the development of the Constitutional Declaration.David Gritten, “Sharaa vows to pursue criminals as Syria's transitional president,” BBC News, January 31, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8d9r0vg6v7o; Jennifer Holleis, “Syria: Political roadmap approves new president amid reforms,” Deutsche Welle, January 31, 2025, https://www.dw.com/en/syria-political-roadmap-approves-new-president-amid-sweeping-reforms/a-71475211.

Doctrine:

Al-Nusra Front adheres to a Salafist, jihadist ideology with the professed aim of establishing Islamic governance in all areas under its control. In the group’s January 2012 inaugural video, a masked representative outlined its regional objectives. He introduced al-Nusra Front as “Syrian mujahedeen” who have come “back from various jihad fronts to restore God’s rule on the Earth [Islamic law] and avenge the Syrians’ violated honour and spilled blood.”Paul Wood, “Syria: Islamist Nusra Front Gives BBC Exclusive Interview,” BBC News, January 17, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-21061018.

Years later, when Golani announced al-Nusra Front’s dissociation from al-Qaeda, he reaffirmed the group’s core objectives, saying that despite separating from al-Qaeda, the group would not be “compromising or sacrificing our solid beliefs or laxity in the necessity of the continuity of the Jihad of Al-Sham [Syria].”Thomas Joscelyn, “Transcript of Abu Muhammad al Julani’s Speech,” Long War Journal, July 29, 2016, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/07/transcript-of-abu-muhammad-al-julanis-speech.php; Dania Akkad, “Nusra confirms split with al-Qaeda ‘to Protect the Syrian revolution,’” Middle East Eye, July 28, 2016, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/nusra-front-announces-official-split-al-qaeda-520293064. Golani reaffirmed that his group sought to use “Islamically legitimate means” to unify jihadists in Syria and the “masses of people in Al-Sham [Syria]” in order to replace the Assad government with one based on sharia (Islamic law).Thomas Joscelyn, “Transcript of Abu Muhammad al Julani’s Speech,” Long War Journal, July 29, 2016, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/07/transcript-of-abu-muhammad-al-julanis-speech.php; Dania Akkad, “Nusra confirms split with al-Qaeda ‘to protect the Syrian revolution,’” Middle East Eye, July 28, 2016, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/nusra-front-announces-official-split-al-qaeda-520293064. In a February 2021 interview with PBS’s Frontline, Golani described HTS’s “key message” as the people wanted to change a ruler and the ruler wanted to change a people—and changing a ruler is a lot easier than changing a people.Priyanka Boghani, “Syrian Militant and Former Al Qaeda Leader Seeks Wider Acceptance in First Interview With U.S. Journalist,” Frontline, April 2, 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/abu-mohammad-al-jolani-interview-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-syria-al-qaeda/.

Despite these affirmations, al-Nusra Front has continued to struggle with its identity. On November 27, 2017, Golani ordered the arrests of Sami al-Oraidi, the former head of al-Nusra Front’s Sharia Council; Abu Julaibib al-Ordoni, former Dara’a commander for al-Nusra Front; Abu Khadija al-Ordoni; and Abu Mussaab al-Libi. All four were prominent al-Nusra Front leaders with strong ties to al-Qaeda.Mona Alami, “HTS Continues to Evolve,” Atlantic Council SyriaSource, December 1, 2017, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/syriasource/hts-continues-to-evolve. Following these arrests, several HTS members resigned and several large factions threatened to break away, prompting Golani to renew negotiations with al-Qaeda that ultimately led nowhere.“Weekly Conflict Summary November 30-December 6, 2017,” Carter Center, December 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.30-12.05.pdf. On December 4, 2017, HTS released Ordoni in a bid to ease tensions within the group. Ordoni immediately renewed his pledge to al-Qaeda upon release.“Weekly Conflict Summary November 30-December 6, 2017,” Carter Center, December 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.30-12.05.pdf.

Following these arrests, several subgroups of devoted al-Qaeda supporters defected from HTS. On December 5, 2017, HTS faction Jaish al-Badia defected, creating a new Telegram channel devoted to al-Qaeda.Tore Refslund Hamming and Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “The True Story of al-Qaeda’s Demise and Resurgence in Syria,” Lawfareblog, April 8, 2018, https://lawfareblog.com/true-story-al-qaedas-demise-and-resurgence-syria. Jaish al-Malahem followed three weeks later, also indicating support for al-Qaeda in its new Telegram channel, while on February 7, 2018, a new al-Qaeda-supporting group, Jund al Shariah, announced its formation.Tore Refslund Hamming and Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “The True Story of al-Qaeda’s Demise and Resurgence in Syria,” Lawfareblog, April 8, 2018, https://lawfareblog.com/true-story-al-qaedas-demise-and-resurgence-syria. On February 28, 2018, these three groups, along with three other small militant factions, announced a merger under the name Hurras al-Deen (HaD), or Guardians of the Religion, and declared themselves an unofficial affiliate of al-Qaeda.Tore Refslund Hamming and Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “The True Story of al-Qaeda’s Demise and Resurgence in Syria,” Lawfareblog, April 8, 2018, https://lawfareblog.com/true-story-al-qaedas-demise-and-resurgence-syria. Oraidi and Ordoni both joined HaD's Shura council and reportedly began talks with al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri to make HaD the official al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria.Tore Refslund Hamming and Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “The True Story of al-Qaeda’s Demise and Resurgence in Syria,” Lawfareblog, April 8, 2018, https://lawfareblog.com/true-story-al-qaedas-demise-and-resurgence-syria. HaD is explicitly loyal to al-Qaeda and the U.S. government considers it part of al-Qaeda in Syria.Aymenn al-Tamimi, “Hurras al-Din: Interview,” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi’s blog, July 11, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/07/hurras-al-din-interview; The Best of Bad Options for Syria’s Idlib, International Crisis Group, March 14, 2019, 17, https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/197-the-best-of-bad-options%20.pdf; Nathan A. Sales, “Keeping the Pressure on al-Qaida,” U.S. Department of State, September 12, 2019, https://www.state.gov/keeping-the-pressure-on-al-qaida. HaD views al-Qaeda leader Zawahiri as its “defining authority.”“Hardliner Wing of ‘Hurras al-Din’ Loses Its Most Influential Figures,” Enab Baladi, July 4, 2018, https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/07/hardliner-wing-of-guardians-of-religion-loses-its-most-influential-figures/#ixzz65J3MS9o5; “Twenty-Fourth Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team Submitted Pursuant to Resolution 2368 (2017) concerning ISIL (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and Associated Individuals and Entities,” UN Security Council, June 27, 2019, 7-8, https://undocs.org/S/2019/570. HaD remains at odds with HTS.

While some Syria analysts argue that this chain of events proves that HTS and al-Nusra Front are no longer al-Qaeda affiliates, the U.S. government maintains that the groups are linked. On May 31, 2018, the State Department amended its classification of HTS to include it as “an official alias” of al-Nusra Front, which the State Department maintains is still “an al-Qaeda affiliate.”“Amendments to the Terrorist Designations of al-Nusrah Front,” U.S. Department of State, May 31, 2018, https://www.state.gov/amendments-to-the-terrorist-designations-of-al-nusrah-front/; “Country Reports on Terrorism 2020,” U.S. Department of State, December 2021, 295, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Country_Reports_on_Terrorism_2020.pdf. Nonetheless, as HTS has sought to soften its public image, some U.S. officials have praised HTS’s role in Syria. In March 2022, James Jeffrey, who served as special representative for Syria engagement and special envoy to the global coalition to defeat ISIS during the Trump administration, called HTS “an asset” to America’s strategy in Idlib. According to Jeffries, HTS is “the least bad option of the various options on Idlib, and Idlib is one of the most important places in Syria, which is one of the most important places right now in the Middle East.”Priyanka Boghani, “Syrian Militant and Former Al Qaeda Leader Seeks Wider Acceptance in First Interview With U.S. Journalist,” PBS, April 2, 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/abu-mohammad-al-jolani-interview-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-syria-al-qaeda/.

On November 2, 2017, HTS announced the formation of the “Salvation Government,” a civilian-run administrative and political body in Idlib chaired by Mohammad al-Sheikh. HTS reportedly handed over control of its Public Services Administration to the Salvation Government.Sam Heller, “Turkey Through the Syrian Looking Glass,” Century Foundation, November 28, 2017, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/turkey-syrian-looking-glass/; “شاهد .. الإعلان عن تشكيل حكومة الإنقاذ في إدلب برئاسة"محمد الشيخ,” YouTube video, 16:29, posted by “ نداء سوريا,” November 2, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5orACzyc_G8. As the war against the Syrian regime slowed down and rebel infighting increased in 2018, al-Nusra Front sought to use the Salvation Government to exert political control over territory that escaped its military control.Sam Heller, “Turkey Through the Syrian Looking Glass,” Century Foundation, November 28, 2017, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/turkey-syrian-looking-glass/; “شاهد .. الإعلان عن تشكيل حكومة الإنقاذ في إدلب برئاسة"محمد الشيخ,” YouTube video, 16:29, posted by “ نداء سوريا,” November 2, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5orACzyc_G8. In January 2019, HTS succeeded in using its military power to force all other rebel groups in Idlib, Hama, and Aleppo to either hand direct control of their towns to HTS or to allow the Salvation Government to take over their towns’ local councils.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 6th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 6, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/06/syrian-war-daily-6th-of-january-2019/#more-10014; “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Takes Over Idlib After Ceasefire Deal,” Asharq al-Awsat (London), January 10, 2019, https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1540261/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-takes-over-idlib-after-ceasefire-deal; Joško Barić “Syrian War Daily – 10th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 10, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/10/syrian-war-daily-10th-of-january-2019/#more-10029. The United Nations and human rights groups continue to accuse HTS of mass arrests without charge and torture of detainees, which HTS denies. In a February 2021 interview, Golani denied HTS is detaining innocent people or those critical of the group and instead arresting thieves and other criminals. He further claimed individuals detained by HTS were “regime agents,” “Russian agents who come to place booby traps,” or members of ISIS.Priyanka Boghani, “Syrian Militant and Former Al Qaeda Leader Seeks Wider Acceptance in First Interview With U.S. Journalist,” Frontline, April 2, 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/abu-mohammad-al-jolani-interview-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-syria-al-qaeda/.

While al-Nusra Front works to establish Islamic law in all areas under its control, it has done so incrementally in order to sustain local support. In this way, the group follows the guidelines and strategy of al-Qaeda-linked writer Abu Musab al-Suri, who sought to win the hearts and minds of locals in order to pursue his Islamist objectives.Hassan Hassan, “A Jihadist Blueprint for Hearts and Minds Is Gaining Traction in Syria,” National (Abu Dhabi), March 4, 2014, http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/a-jihadist-blueprint-for-hearts-and-minds-is-gaining-traction-in-syria. In a statement posted online, Golani said, “Beware of being hard on [the locals]. Begin with the priorities and fundamentals of Islam, and be flexible on the minor parts of religion.”Hassan Hassan, “A Jihadist Blueprint for Hearts and Minds Is Gaining Traction in Syria,” National (Dubai), March 4, 2014, http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/a-jihadist-blueprint-for-hearts-and-minds-is-gaining-traction-in-syria. In a December 2012 interview with the Dubai-based National, Golani said that his group’s “first goal is to get rid of Assad. Then we want a state where the Quran is the only source of law.”Balint Szlanko, “Jabhat Al Nusra’s new Syria,” National (Abu Dhabi), December 15, 2012, http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/jabhat-al-nusras-new-syria.

While al-Nusra Front has generally followed these guidelines, there are several instances where regional leaders have been quick to impose harsh interpretations of Islamic law onto local populaces and use violence to force conversions.“Syrian Rebels to Retreat from Christian Town of Maaloula,” France 24, September 11, 2013, https://www.france24.com/en/20130911-syrian-rebels-withdraw-christian-town-maaloula. In January 2015 in the Druze-dominated Jabal al-Summaq mountain in Idlib province, the Front’s then regional emir, Abu Abd al-Rahman al-Tunisi, ordered the local Druze to convert to Sunni Islam and destroyed their shrines.Aymenn J. al-Tamimi, “Additional Notes on the Druze of Jabal al-Summaq,” Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi’s Blog, October 6, 2015, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2015/10/additional-notes-on-the-druze-of-jabal-al-summaq. Tunisi was removed from his position after al-Nusra Front fighters under his command killed 23 Druze civilians in Qalb Lawza during a land dispute. Although al-Nusra Front reprimanded Tunisi for the massacre, the group upheld the validity of the forced conversions.Aymenn J. al-Tamimi, “Additional Notes on the Druze of Jabal al-Summaq,” Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi’s Blog, October 6, 2015, www.aymennjawad.org/2015/10/additional-note-on-the-druze-of-jabal-summaq. Al-Nusra Front has also reportedly imposed smoking bans on areas it controls, forced clothing shops to cover the heads of mannequins, and jailed men and women for socializing together in public.Sune Engel Rasmussen, “As Islamic State Fades in Syria, Another Militant Group Takes Root,” Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/as-islamic-state-fades-in-syria-another-militant-group-takes-root-1524064045.

Although al-Nusra Front publicly emphasizes its Syrian aims, it has shown signs of a more expansionist ideology in line with al-Qaeda’s brand of global jihadism. Despite the group’s emphasis on its Syrian character, al-Nusra Front expanded its operations into neighboring Lebanon in response to Hezbollah’s intervention in Syria.“Nusra Front – Lebanon,” Terrorism Research & Analysis Consortium, accessed December 25, 2014, http://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/nusra-front-lebanon. The group also stands accused of plotting attacks against the West,Patricia Zengerle and Mark Hosenball, “U.S. Spy Chiefs Say Number of Foreign Militants in Syria Rises,” Reuters, January 29, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/29/us-usa-security-syria-idUSBREA0S1XL20140129. seemingly through the elusive Khorasan group, or what one Dubai reporter has exposed as al-Nusra Front’s ‘Wolf Unit.’Jenan Moussa, “Exclusive: Documents Show that the Khorasan Group Is the Same Group as Wolf’s Nusra,” Al Aan TV, October 1, 2014, http://www.alaan.tv/news/world-news/114998/khorassan-group-is-in-fact-the-wolf-unit-of-nusra-front-documents-show. However, the death of Khorasan commander Said Arif in 2015 signaled the effective end of al-Nusra Front’s external operations.Charles Lister, Profiling Jabhat al-Nusra, Brookings Institute, July 2016, 30, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/iwr_20160728_profiling_nusra.pdf. When al-Nusra Front was initially sent to Syria, one of its founding goals was reportedly to establish a safe haven for training recruits and stashing weapons,Quilliam Foundation, “Jabhat al-Nusra Jabhat al-Nusra li-ahl al-Sham min Mujahedi al-Sham fi Sahat al-Jihad. A Strategic Briefing,” Internet Archive, accessed March 6, 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20160313051444/http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf. allegedly on behalf of al-Qaeda in Iraq (now ISIS).Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda in Iraq, Al Nusrah Front Emerge as Rebranded Single Entity,” Long War Journal, April 9, 2013, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/04/the_emir_of_al_qaeda.php#ixzz3Mw15S2jb.

Organizational Structure:

Al-Nusra Front is both hierarchical and regionalized. Historically, each region has been equipped with an overall leader, a religious leader, and a military commander.Rania Abouzeid, “Interview with Official of Jabhat al-Nusra, Syria’s Islamist Militia Group,” Time, December 25, 2012, http://world.time.com/2012/12/25/interview-with-a-newly-designated-syrias-jabhat-al-nusra/. The group as a whole has been directed by a small consultative council called Majlis-ash-Shura,Quilliam Foundation, “Jabhat al-Nusra Jabhat al-Nusra li-ahl al-Sham min Mujahedi al-Sham fi Sahat al-Jihad. A Strategic Briefing,” Internet Archive, accessed March 6, 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20160313051444/http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf. and headed by its emir (“commander” or “prince”), Abu Muhammad al-Golani. For years, Golani has carefully avoided showing his face in public, releasing audio statements and providing in-person interviews to news outlets with his face blurred out. In July 2016, however, Golani appeared in a video to announce his group’s formal split from al-Qaeda.Thomas Joscelyn, “Analysis: Al Nusrah Front Rebrands Itself as Jabhat Fath Al Sham,” Long War Journal, July 28, 2016, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/07/analysis-al-nusrah-front-rebrands-itself-as-jabhat-fath-al-sham.php.

Al-Nusra Front had previously pledged allegiance to al-Qaeda“Syria Crisis: Al-Nusra Pledges Allegiance to Al-Qaeda,” BBC News, April 10, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22095099. and reported to the latter group’s leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri. On July 28, 2016, Zawahiri released an audio statement giving al-Nusra Front formal permission to break ties with al-Qaeda as needed.“Al Qaeda tells Syrian branch Nusra Front it can drop links,” Reuters, July 28, 2016, http://news.trust.org/item/20160728110801-ogl17. Golani accepted the offer, thanking al-Qaeda and its leaders and announcing that the Front no longer had “any affiliation to any external entity.”Thomas Joscelyn, “Analysis: Al Nusrah Front Rebrands Itself as Jabhat Fath al Sham,” Long War Journal, July 28, 2016, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/07/analysis-al-nusrah-front-rebrands-itself-as-jabhat-fath-al-sham.php.< After claiming to break with al-Qaeda, the Front attempted to merge with other large Islamist opposition groups, including Ahrar al-Sham.“Full Story: The Military Factions of Syria in Seek to Integrate,” el-Dorar al-Shamia, December 23, 2016, http://en.eldorar.com/node/4121. On January 28, 2017, al-Nusra Front announced that it was disbanding as a standalone body and would operate under the banner of HTS, a coalition that combines five major Islamist factions—al-Nusra Front, Harakat Nour al Din al Zenki, Liwa al Haqq, Ansar al Din, and Jaysh al Sunna—along with dozens of smaller Islamist and secular Free Syrian Army groups under one central leadership, with Golani heading its militant branch.Charles Lister, Twitter post, January 29, 2017, 11:08am, https://twitter.com/Charles_Lister/status/825737487255531524. However after a series of clashes with other rebel groups in Idlib in July 2017, dozens of factions and leaders defected from HTS, reducing the coalition to a core of al-Nusra Front supporters.Aron Lund, “A Jihadist Breakup in Syria,” Foreign Affairs, September 15, 2017, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017-09-15/jihadist-breakup-syria.

In early 2017, Golani claimed to have stepped aside from his leadership of al-Nusra Front to defer to Hashim al-Sheikh, leader of the HTS coalition, while Golani became the military commander of the group.Thomas Joscelyn, “Hay’at Tahrir al Sham leader calls for ‘unity’ in Syrian insurgency,” Long War Journal, February 10, 2017, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/02/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-leader-calls-for-unity-in-syrian-insurgency.php; Aymenn al-Tammimi, “The Formation of Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham and Wider Tensions in the Syrian Insurgency,” Combating Terrorism Center, February 22, 2017, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-formation-of-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-and-wider-tensions-in-the-syrian-insurgency. However, since Sheikh’s resignation in October 2017, Golani has once again served as the undisputed leader of HTS.“الجولاني قائداً مؤقتاً لهيئة "تحرير الشام".. وهذا مصير قائدها السابق”, Huffington Post Arabic, October 2, 2017, http://www.huffpostarabi.com/2017/10/02/story_n_18159996.html; “Weekly Conflict Summary September 28 – October 4, 2017,” Carter Center, October 4, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.09.28-10.04.pdf.

According to multiple analysts' estimates in 2018, HTS maintained approximately 12,000–20,000 fighters. In contrast, al-Nusra Front had an estimated 5,000–7,000 fighters in 2016.Cameron Glenn, “The Nusra Front: Al Qaeda’s Affiliate in Syria,” Wilson Center, June 17, 2016, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/the-nusra-front-al-qaedas-affiliate-syria; Lidia Kelly, “Russia Announces Daily Ceasefires in Syria’s Aleppo to Let in Aid,” Reuters, August 10, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-idUSKCN10L1WL; “Syria: Who’s in control in Idlib?” BBC News, September 7, 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45401474; Mariya Petkova, “After the Sochi agreement, HTS is facing internal divisions,” Al Jazeera, September 27, 2018, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/turkey-idlib-180924191442969.html. Al-Nusra Front has also attracted the largest contingency of foreign fighters after ISIS.Ryan Browne, “Report: Syria’s al-Nusra ‘more dangerous’ than ISIS,” CNN, January 26, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/25/politics/al-qaeda-al-nusra-isis-threat-experts/. Its militant branch is responsible for conducting coordinated attacks against the Assad regime, loyalists, thugs, and perceived colluders, as well as rival groups like ISIS and secular Free Syrian Army factions. The militant branch also conducts ‘lone wolf’ operations (including suicide bombings) and hostage missions targeting Lebanese and Syrian civilians.Al Jazeera, “Jabhat al-Nusra claims deadly Lebanon bombing,” Al Jazeera, February 1, 2014, www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/02/al-nusra-front-claims-deadly-lebanon-bombing-201421221112955650.html.

HTS’s military was originally separated into four “armies”: the Army of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the Army of Omar bin al-Khattab, the Army of Othman bin Affan, and the Army of Ali bin Abi Talib.Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi, “A New Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham Recruitment Campaign,” Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi’s blog, September 5, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/09/a-new-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-recruitment-campaign. On April 14, 2020, HTS’s military wing announced the establishment of three new military brigades: the Talha bin Ubayd Allah Brigade, headed by Abu Hafs Binnish; the Ali bin Abi Talib Brigade, headed by Abu Bakr Muhain; and the al-Zubeir ibn al-Awwam Brigade, headed by Abu Mohammad Shura. These armies consist of anti-armored-vehicles units, machine-gun units, armored-vehicles units, air-reconnaissance units (drone operators), automatic and manual fortification-building units, mortar units, and sniper units.Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi, “Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham's 'North Brigade',” Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi’s blog, September 16, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/09/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-north-brigade; Khaled al-Khateb, “Idlib jihadist group uses Syria cease-fire to restructure, expand,” Al-Monitor, May 1, 2020, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/syria-idlib-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-new-brigades-battle.html. Binnish is reportedly the son-in-law of Golani and has risen quickly throughout the group due to his family connection. HTS issued a statement claiming, “these changes are in line with the preparations of the revolutionary forces on the ground…to rise to the challenges of the revolution and defend the region against the attacks of the occupier and its militias.” Since the beginning of 2020, HTS has allegedly had a growing number of defections within its ranks given massive losses in battles against the Syrian government.Khaled al-Khateb, “Idlib jihadist group uses Syria cease-fire to restructure, expand,” Al-Monitor, May 1, 2020, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/04/syria-idlib-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-new-brigades-battle.html.

HTS also operates a special military unit known as the “Red Bands” or “Band of Deaths” that is reportedly responsible for conducting raids behind regime frontlines.Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, “Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham's 'Red Bands': Interview,” March 6, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/03/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-red-bands-interview. The group simultaneously stands accused by the U.S. government of plotting attacks against Western targets through its small and secretive “Wolf unit.”Jenan Moussa, “Exclusive: Documents Show that the Khorasan Group Is the Same Group as Wolf’s Nusra,” Al Aan TV, October 1, 2014, http://www.alaan.tv/news/world-news/114998/khorassan-group-is-in-fact-the-wolf-unit-of-nusra-front-documents-show;
Charles Lister, Profiling Jabhat al-Nusra, Brookings Institute, July 2016, 30, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/iwr_20160728_profiling_nusra.pdf.

In addition to the group’s militant branch, al-Nusra Front managed civilian services and administration programs, known as Idarat al-Khidamat al-Ammah (Public Services Administration) and Idarat al-Manateq al-Muharara (Liberated Districts Administration)respectively, to govern areas in northern, western, and southern Syria, alongside other rebel groups.Bassem Mroue, “AP EXPLAINS: Why Syria’s al-Qaida may be considering a split,” Associated Press, July 27, 2016, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/d10d759d35824b70b47501d85f0ff8c3/ap-explains-why-syrias-al-qaida-may-be-considering-split. Al-Nusra Front’s civilian branch has previously operated under the direction of its reported head of civilian programs at the time, Hajji Rasoul.Ruth Sherlock, “Syria: how jihadist group Jabhat al-Nusra is taking over Syria's revolution,” Telegraph (London), February 8, 2013, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9857846/Syria-how-jihadist-group-Jabhat-al-Nusra-is-taking-over-Syrias-revolution.html. In the past, the program has coordinated bread rations and enforced Islamist regulations on al-Nusra Front’s de facto subjects.Liz Sly, “Islamic Law Comes to Rebel-Held Areas of Syria,” Washington Post, March 19, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/islamic-law-comes-to-rebel-held-syria/2013/03/19/b310532e-90af-11e2-bdea-e32ad90da239_story.html. As part of the group’s governance program, al-Nusra Front—alongside its allied rebel groups—levy taxes and control the allocation of special permits to civilian vehicles.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45.

On November 2, 2017, HTS announced the formation of the Salvation Government, a civilian-run administrative and political body in Idlib chaired by Mohammad al-Sheikh. HTS reportedly handed over control of its Public Services Administration to the Salvation Government.Sam Heller, “Turkey Through the Syrian Looking Glass,” Century Foundation, November 28, 2017, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/turkey-syrian-looking-glass/; “شاهد .. الإعلان عن تشكيل حكومة الإنقاذ في إدلب برئاسة "محمد الشيخ,” YouTube video,16:29, posted by “نداء سوريا,” November 2, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5orACzyc_G8. According to Syrian expert Sam Heller, the Salvation government formed through “a miniature, managed version of an inclusive national dialogue,” implying that at least some non-HTS elements are present in the body. However, many analysts and activists believe that the newly formed governing bodies in Idlib are controlled by HTS.Sam Heller, “Turkey Through the Syrian Looking Glass,” Century Foundation, November 28, 2017, https://tcf.org/content/commentary/turkey-syrian-looking-glass/; Mona Alami, “HTS Continues to Evolve,” Atlantic Council SyriaSource, December 1, 2017, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/syriasource/hts-continues-to-evolve. In January 2019, a ceasefire between HTS and the Turkish-backed rebel alliance National Liberation Front resulted in the Salvation Government taking control of every local council previously under the control or protection of those rebel groups, making HTS the dominant force in Idlib.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 6th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 6, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/06/syrian-war-daily-6th-of-january-2019/#more-10014; “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Takes Over Idlib After Ceasefire Deal,” Asharq al-Awsat (London), January 10, 2019, https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1540261/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-takes-over-idlib-after-ceasefire-deal; Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 10th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 10, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/10/syrian-war-daily-10th-of-january-2019/#more-10029.

For recruitment and publicity purposes, al-Nusra Front has maintained a media branch called al-Manara al-Bayda (“the White Minaret”), which the group has refrained from using since dissociating from al-Qaeda and merging with HTS.Thomas Joscelyn, “Hay’at Tahrir al Sham leader calls for ‘unity’ in Syrian insurgency,” Long War Journal, February 10, 2017, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/02/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-leader-calls-for-unity-in-syrian-insurgency.php. This branch had previously maintained the group’s public image and media program, disseminating videos and posting statements by the group on jihadist websites, as well as on encrypted messaging applications, video-hosting websites, and social media websites.Rania Abouzeid, “Interview with Official of Jabhat al-Nusra, Syria’s Islamist Militia Group,” Time, December 25, 2012, http://world.time.com/2012/12/25/interview-with-a-newly-designated-syrias-jabhat-al-nusra/;
White Minaret, Telegram, accessed July 28, 2016, https://web.telegram.org/#/im?p=@Al_Manara. HTS has, since its formation in early 2017, begun operating accounts on TwitterHayat Tahrir al-Sham, Twitter feed, accessed February 14, 2017, https://twitter.com/tahriralsham1?lang=en. and TelegramAl Maqalaat, Telegram feed, accessed February 14, 2017, https://web.telegram.org/#/im?p=@Al_Maqalaat_L. among other social media platforms, issuing statements, updates, and propaganda materials in a variety of languages including English, Arabic, and Russian.Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, Twitter feed, accessed February 14, 2017, https://twitter.com/tahriralsham1?lang=en.

On October 21, 2020, HTS announced through its Sharia Council that it disavowed Assem Barqawi a.k.a. Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi. Al-Maqdisi is a prominent Salafist ideologue and was a close confidante of al-Qaeda founder Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. Al-Maqdisi and HTS have been at odds since HTS’s split from al-Qaeda in 2016. HTS has distanced itself from al-Maqdisi as they are seeking to shed their reputation as an extremist group in order to form a political representation bureau in Idlib. Additionally, according to scholars at Jusoor for Studies, a Syrian independent institution based in Turkey, by disavowing al-Maqdisi, HTS was better positioned to persuade other military factions to cooperate in a future HTS military council project. The project aimed to deter the presence of a burgeoning joint military operations room comprised of al-Qaeda linked militant groups.Sultan al-Kanj, “Syrian extremist group in Idlib breaks with jihadist ideologue,” Al-Monitor, October 21, 2020, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/10/syria-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-relations-al-qaeda-jihadis.html#ixzz6bcn6ts00; Sirwan Kajjo, “Jihadists in Syria’s Idlib Form New ‘Operations Room,’” Voice of America, June 15, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/jihadists-syrias-idlib-form-new-operations-room.

In mid-2019, HTS established the Al-Fath Al-Mubin operations room, a coalition of jihadi and anti-regime factions. Under Al-Fath Al-Mubin, HTS sought to unify rebel groups and military operations and prevent the formation of other rebel factions.“Al-Fath Al-Mubin Operations Room [FMOR],” Global Security, accessed December 10, 2024, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/fmor.htm. Other units within Al-Fath Al-Mubin include Ahrar Al-Sham, Suqour Al-Sham, Jaysh Al-Nasr, and the Turkestan Islamic Party (TIP).“Pro-Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS) Media Group Claims Over 407 Sniper Attacks By HTS-Linked Operations Room During First Half Of 2024, Declares World Record For Longest Distance Shot At ‘3,920 Meters,’” Middle East Media Research Institute, July 11, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/pro-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-media-group-claims-over-407-sniper-attacks-hts-linked-operations; “Al-Fath Al-Mubin Operations Room [FMOR],” Global Security, accessed December 10, 2024, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/fmor.htm. In June 2020, al-Qaeda linked militant groups led by Hurras al-Din launched the “Be Steadfast” military operations center in Idlib primarily to coordinate efforts to fight against Syrian government troops, its allied forces, and HTS.Sultan al-Kanj, “Syrian extremist group in Idlib breaks with jihadist ideologue,” Al-Monitor, October 21, 2020, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/10/syria-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-relations-al-qaeda-jihadis.html#ixzz6bcn6ts00; Sirwan Kajjo, “Jihadists in Syria’s Idlib Form New ‘Operations Room,’” Voice of America, June 15, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/jihadists-syrias-idlib-form-new-operations-room. Other groups comprising the operations room were Jamaat Ansar al-Islam and Jabhat Ansar al-Din, as well as al-Jihad Coordination and al-Muqatileen al-Ansar Brigade, the latter two of which were former HTS splinter groups.Sultan al-Kanj, “Syrian extremist group in Idlib breaks with jihadist ideologue,” Al-Monitor, October 21, 2020, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/10/syria-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-relations-al-qaeda-jihadis.html#ixzz6bcn6ts00; Sirwan Kajjo, “Jihadists in Syria’s Idlib Form New ‘Operations Room,’” Voice of America, June 15, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/jihadists-syrias-idlib-form-new-operations-room.

In July 2024, unofficial HTS media outlet Al-Askari Media released infographics documenting the number of sniper operations carried out by the Al-Fath Al-Mubin between January and June of 2024. According to the infographic, the HTS-led rebel network carried out 407 sniper attacks in the first half of 2024.“Pro-Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS) Media Group Claims Over 407 Sniper Attacks By HTS-Linked Operations Room During First Half Of 2024, Declares World Record For Longest Distance Shot At ‘3,920 Meters,’” Middle East Media Research Institute, July 11, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/pro-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-media-group-claims-over-407-sniper-attacks-hts-linked-operations. On November 27, 2024, Al-Fath Al-Mubin rebranded as “Military Operations Command (MOC),” which led the overthrow of the Assad regime in December 2024.“Announcing ‘Liberation Of Damascus And Flight Of Assad, Hay’at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS)-Linked Operations Room Declares ‘Beginning Of New Age For Syria’; HTS Leader Al-Joulani: Public Institutions Remain Temporarily In Custody Of Former PM Al-Jalali,” Middle East Media Research Institute, December 8, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/announcing-liberation-damascus-and-flight-assad-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-linked-operations-room#_edn1.

On December 29, 2024, less than one month after taking over Damascus, HTS published an order listing the promotion of almost 50 military officers “as part of beginning the process of developing and modernizing the army and armed forces.”“Hay’at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS) Leader Ahmed Al-Sharaa Promotes Military Officers, Including Senior HTS Commanders, Uyghur, Albanian, Turkish, Jordanian, Egyptian Nationals,” Middle East Media Research Institute, December 31, 2024, https://www.memri.org/reports/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-leader-ahmed-al-sharaa-promotes-military-officers-including-senior. According to Golani, the order would dissolve Syria’s armed factions and reorganize them under Syria’s defense ministry. The order went into effect on January 1, 2025. Among those promoted were Jordanian, Turkish, Albanian, and Egyptian nationals with varying connections to jihadi groups such as the Turkestan Islamic Party, HTS predecessor Al-Nusra Front, and Ahrar Al-Sham. Many of those promoted to the ranks of brigadier general and colonel had previously served as HTS commanders.“Hay’at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS) Leader Ahmed Al-Sharaa Promotes Military Officers, Including Senior HTS Commanders, Uyghur, Albanian, Turkish, Jordanian, Egyptian Nationals,” Middle East Media Research Institute, December 31, 2024, https://www.memri.org/reports/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-leader-ahmed-al-sharaa-promotes-military-officers-including-senior.

Financing:

Al-Nusra Front has been well-funded since its inception in 2011.Mohammed Alaa Ghanem, “Taking Syria Back From the Extremists,” Washington Post, December 27, 2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/taking-syria-back-from-the-extremists/2012/12/27/2b6ce1a6-3d96-11e2-ae43-cf491b837f7b_story.html. By August 2016, the group received streams of funding through a variety of means, including taxation, tariffs, fines, ransoms, international donations, oil sales, looting, and smuggling.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45. In September 2019, HTS commander Abu al-Abed al-Ashida released a video statement accusing HTS of corrupt internal practices. In the video, Ashida claimed HTS had a monthly income of $13 million.“Senior HTS Military Commander Accuses HTS Leadership of Corruption and Mismanagement,” YouTube video, 19:57, posted by On The Ground News TV, September 11, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1jG8FYnrJf0&feature=youtu.be.

The most stable source of income for al-Nusra Front is believed to have come from taxes, tariffs, and fines that the group imposes on locals within its territory. Among the taxes levied by the group are income, business, services and utility taxes, including taxes on access to electricity, water, and bread. Al-Nusra Front also reportedly receives funding by leasing out homes, and is even reported to have levied a tax on internally displaced persons within Idlib province.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45. As HTS came to dominate the rebel pocket in Idlib, the coalition monopolized the agricultural industry. HTS forced farmers to sell them their crops at deflated prices, which HTS then sold to the populace at market rates, allowing HTS to collect the profits.Khaled al-Khattab, “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham loses third leader in Syria this year,” al-Monitor, September 19, 2019, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/09/syria-idlib-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-corruption-defection.html#ixzz60BQgTWQ6. In addition to taxes, al-Nusra Front has seized assets from religious minority groups and receives funding through an arms and weaponry tariff on other rebel groups.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45. In this way, al-Nusra Front is believed to receive roughly half of the ammunition and weapons sent to the Free Syrian Army in northern Syria.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45.

Following the formation of the Salvation Government in November 2017, al-Nusra Front began taxing water and electricity usage in the municipalities under its control.Sune Engel Rasmussen, “As Islamic State Fades in Syria, Another Militant Group Takes Root,” Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/as-islamic-state-fades-in-syria-another-militant-group-takes-root-1524064045. With HTS’s complete administrative takeover of greater Idlib in January 2019, the funds provided through taxation are likely to increase substantially. HTS also captured the Bab al-Halwa border crossing between Idlib and Turkey in July 2017, providing an additional taxation source for the terror organization.Sune Engel Rasmussen, “As Islamic State Fades in Syria, Another Militant Group Takes Root,” Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/as-islamic-state-fades-in-syria-another-militant-group-takes-root-1524064045.

Sources of funding for the group also reportedly include private donations from wealthy individuals in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Kuwait, who are believed to launder the funds through small money transfers, or by dispatching the money with individuals who cross state borders into al-Nusra-held territory.Oliver Holmes and Alexander Dziadosz, “Special Report: How Syria's Islamists Govern with Guile and Guns,” Reuters, June 20, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/20/us-syria-rebels-governance-specialreport-idUSBRE95J05R20130620;
Suleiman al-Khalidi, “Syrian Al Qaeda Reach Foothills of Israeli-Held Golan,” Reuters, May 22, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/22/us-syria-south-insight-idUSBREA4L03Z20140522;
Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45. Indeed, al-Nusra Front’s decision in July 2016 to dissociate from al-Qaeda is widely believed to have been motivated in large part to enable Qatari-based donors to continue sending money to al-Nusra Front without being accused of providing financial support to al-Qaeda.Raf Sanchez, “Al-Qaeda leader gives blessing for terror group to form own 'Islamic state' in Syria,” Telegraph (London), May 8, 2016, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/08/al-qaeda-leader-gives-blessing-for-terror-group-to-form-own-isla/;
David Roberts, “What drove Syria's Nusra Front to detach itself from al-Qaeda?” BBC News, July 29, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36922079;
Zvi Bar’el, “Nusra Front Eyes Legitimacy in Syria After Amicable Split With Al-Qaida,” Haaretz (Tel Aviv), July 31, 2016, http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/.premium-1.734333.

In addition to foreign donations, al-Nusra Front has also secured revenue from oil sales and smuggling,“Russia intensifies strikes on Nusra Front oil sites -military official,” Reuters, May 27, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-syria-russia-idUSR4N18K01I. as well as through cigarette smuggling and extortion.Charles Lister, “An internal struggle: Al Qaeda’s Syrian affiliate is grappling with its identity,” Brookings Institution, May 31, 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/markaz/2015/05/31/an-internal-struggle-al-qaedas-syrian-affiliate-is-grappling-with-its-identity/. Although governments typically deny payment for the release of hostages, al-Nusra Front is believed to have racked up millions of dollars through hostage exchanges negotiated by the Qatari government. In one such exchange, the group reportedly received $4 million when it released four Greek Orthodox nuns in March 2014.Christiaan Triebert and Rao Kumar, “Jabhat Fateh al-Sham’s Income and Resources,” Hate Speech International, August 15, 2016, https://www.hate-speech.org/jabhat-fateh-al-shams-income-and-resources-an-open-source-investigation/#fn-2879-45. In another exchange, al-Nusra Front reportedly received $25 million when it released 45 U.N. peacekeepers.Alroy Menezes, “Al Qaeda-Backed Nusra Front Frees Captured UN Peacekeeping Troops After Releasing Video Of Troops,” International Business Times, September 11, 2014, http://www.ibtimes.com/al-qaeda-backed-nusra-front-frees-captured-un-peacekeeping-troops-after-releasing-video-1685352;
“Report: UN Had Qatar Pay Off Al-Qaida Fighters for Release of Fiji Peacekeepers,” Haaretz (Tel Aviv), October 11, 2014, http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/1.620228. U.S. citizen Peter Theo Curtis was believed to have been released in August 2014 in exchange for anywhere between $3 million and $25 million, although the circumstances of Curtis’s release were not made public.Rukmini Callimachi, “U.S. Writer Held by Qaeda Affiliate in Syria Is Freed After Nearly 2 Years,” New York Times, August 24, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/25/world/middleeast/peter-theo-curtis-held-by-qaeda-affiliate-in-syria-is-freed-after-2-years.html.

Recruitment:

In order to join al-Nusra Front, the group has historically required its recruits to procure tazkiyya (a voucher on behalf of the recruit) from two commanders on the front lines.Quilliam Foundation, “Jabhat al-Nusra Jabhat al-Nusra li-ahl al-Sham min Mujahedi al-Sham fi Sahat al-Jihad. A Strategic Briefing,” Internet Archive, accessed March 6, 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20160313051444/http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf. Once the recruit was accepted, he would swear bay’ah (an oath of allegiance) to the group, thereby cementing his religious commitment.Quilliam Foundation, “Jabhat al-Nusra Jabhat al-Nusra li-ahl al-Sham min Mujahedi al-Sham fi Sahat al-Jihad. A Strategic Briefing,” Internet Archive, accessed March 6, 2020, https://web.archive.org/web/20160313051444/http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/publications/free/jabhat-al-nusra-a-strategic-briefing.pdf.

Al-Nusra Front has also recruited members online and in private messaging applications through its former media branches, al-Minara al-Bayda and Fursan al-Sham media. Within Syria, the group has attracted recruits by appealing to the locals in a strategy adopted from al-Qaeda jihadist Abu Musab al-Suri.Hassan Hassan, “A Jihadist Blueprint for Hearts and Minds Is Gaining Traction in Syria,” National (Abu Dhabi), March 4, 2014, http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/comment/a-jihadist-blueprint-for-hearts-and-minds-is-gaining-traction-in-syria. When it comes to attracting recruits, al-Nusra Front holds a financial advantage over competing rebel groups, as it has historically been able to provide members with salaries and weapons.Mohammed Alaa Ghanem, “Taking Syria Back From the Extremists,” Washington Post, December 27, 2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/taking-syria-back-from-the-extremists/2012/12/27/2b6ce1a6-3d96-11e2-ae43-cf491b837f7b_story.html. Under HTS, a new media outlet has been created, Ebaa Agency, which produces high-quality videos, infographics, and media statements similar to those of Amaq, ISIS’s media wing.Thomas Joscelyn, “Analysis: Insurgents launch major offensive against Assad regime in Hama province,” Long War Journal, March 24, 2017, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/03/analysis-insurgents-launch-major-offensive-against-assad-regime-in-hama-province.php.

In addition to recruiting guerilla fighters through online and in-person efforts, al-Nusra Front stands accused of recruiting child soldiers. The U.N. Human Rights Council’s Independent Commission on Syria has issued reports on al-Nusra Front’s successful recruitment of child soldiers continuing into 2017. In Idlib province, al-Nusra fighters include boys under the age of 18 and 15, with some manning checkpoints.“Human rights abuses and international humanitarian law violations in the Syrian Arab Republic, 21 July 2016- 28 February 2017,” U.N. Human Rights Council, March 10, 2017, 17, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/IICISyria/Pages/IndependentInternationalCommission.aspx. The Commission found that al-Nusra Front specifically targets poor, uneducated boys for recruitment, paying them modest salaries used to support the boys’ families.“Human rights abuses and international humanitarian law violations in the Syrian Arab Republic, 21 July 2016- 28 February 2017,” U.N. Human Rights Council, March 10, 2017, 17, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/IICISyria/Pages/IndependentInternationalCommission.aspx.

HTS operates recruitment centers in opposition held territory in Aleppo, Idlib, Jabal Zawiyah, Atmeh IDP camp, and in the towns along the Turkish border.Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi, “A New Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham Recruitment Campaign,” Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi’s blog, September 5, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/09/a-new-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-recruitment-campaign. Recent HTS recruitment campaigns have stipulated that recruits must be 16 years old or older, unmarried, and in good health. Unmarried recruits reportedly receive a monthly salary of 38,000 SYP while married recruits are paid 45,000 SYP.Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi, “A New Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham Recruitment Campaign,” Aymenn Jawad al-Tamimi’s blog, September 5, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/09/a-new-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-recruitment-campaign.

Training:

The training process for a new al-Nusra recruit is believed to last for two months. This training includes a 10-day religious course followed by a six to eight military training program with religious lectures every evening.Rania Abouzeid, “Interview with Official of Jabhat al-Nusra, Syria’s Islamist Militia Group,” Time, December 25, 2012, http://world.time.com/2012/12/25/interview-with-a-newly-designated-syrias-jabhat-al-nusra/;
Charles Lister, Profiling Jabhat al-Nusra, Brookings Institute, July 2016, 30, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/iwr_20160728_profiling_nusra.pdf. Training reportedly emphasizes small-unit tactics, close combat, assassinations, and raids with exposure to common weapons from AK variants to anti-tank missiles.Charles Lister, Profiling Jabhat al-Nusra, Brookings Institute, July 2016, 30, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/iwr_20160728_profiling_nusra.pdf. Recruits that show exceptional promise during training are selected to join the special operations groups Jaish al-Nusra and Quwat al-Nukhba.Charles Lister, Profiling Jabhat al-Nusra, Brookings Institute, July 2016, 30, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/iwr_20160728_profiling_nusra.pdf.

Since as far back as 2016, private military contracting company Malhama Tactical has been training al-Nusra Front fighters in special-operation tactics and assisting in developing the small sub-group Quwat al-Nukhba (Elite Forces).“تحرير الشام” تجهّز “قوات النخبة” وتتحدى النظام,” Arabi 21, March 18, 2017, https://medium.com/arabi-21/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%AA%D8%AC%D9%87%D9%91%D8%B2-%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88-d3589a622f6; Rao Komar, Christian Borys, Eric Woods, “The Blackwater of Jihad,” Foreign Policy, February 10, 2017, http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/02/10/the-world-first-jihadi-private-military-contractor-syria-russia-malhama-tactical/. Malhama Tactical was founded by an Uzbek veteran of the Russian military known by his pseudonym Abu Rofiq and initially staffed ten trainers, all with military experience from former Soviet states. Abu Rofiq claims to have founded his organization as a for-profit private military contractor that works exclusively with Sunni-Jihadist organizations. Malhama has reportedly been hired to train and fight alongside both al-Nusra Front and the Turkistani Islamic Party in Syria.Rao Komar, Christian Borys, Eric Woods, “The Blackwater of Jihad,” Foreign Policy, February 10, 2017, http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/02/10/the-world-first-jihadi-private-military-contractor-syria-russia-malhama-tactical/.

On July 2, 2024, unofficial HTS media outlet Al-Askari Media released a photo and video of HTS forces training in Latakia, northeastern Syria. The video reportedly showed HTS special forces carrying out combat readiness drills.“Pro-Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS) Media Group Claims Over 407 Sniper Attacks By HTS-Linked Operations Room During First Half Of 2024, Declares World Record For Longest Distance Shot At ‘3,920 Meters,’” Middle East Media Research Institute, July 11, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/pro-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-media-group-claims-over-407-sniper-attacks-hts-linked-operations. Media reports also revealed that HTS has a police academy in Idlib. Details of the training and instruction of cadets is limited, but in August 2024 300 cadets graduated from the academy. “Hay’at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS)-linked Syrian Salvation Government (SSG) Celebrates The Graduation Of 300 Cadets From Its Police Academy In Idlib,” Middle East Media Research Institute, August 15, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-linked-syrian-salvation-government-ssg-celebrates-graduation-300.

Also Known As:

Al-Nusrah Front“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Al-Nusra Front to Protect the Levant“Islamist Group Claims Syria Bombs ‘to Avenge Sunnis’,” Agence France-Presse, March 21, 2012, http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/03/21/202177.html.
Al Nusrah Front for the People of Levant“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Al Nusrah Front for the People of the Levant“Al-Nusrah Front for the People of the Levant,” United Nations Security Council, accessed March 6, 2020, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/al-nusrah-front-for-the-people-of-the-levant.
Al-Nusrah Front in Lebanon“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Ansar al-Mujahideen Network“Designated Individuals and Organisations,” New Zealand Policy, last modified November 26, 2014, http://www.police.govt.nz/sites/default/files/publications/designated-entities-26-11-2014.pdf.
Assembly for Liberation of the Levant“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Assembly for the Liberation of Syria“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Conquest of the Levant Front“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Fatah al-Sham Front“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Fateh al-Sham Front“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Front for the Conquest of Syria“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Front for the Conquest of Syria / the Levant“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Front for the Liberation of the Levant“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Hay’at Tahrir al-ShamCharles Lister, “Al Qaeda Is Starting to Swallow the Syrian Opposition,” Foreign Policy, March 15, 2017, http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/03/15/al-qaeda-is-swallowing-the-syrian-opposition/.
Hay’et Tahrir al-Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
HTS“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Jabhat al-Nusrah“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Jabhat al-Nusra li-Ahl al-Sham Min Mujahideen al-Sham fi Sahat al-JihadAndrew Tabler, “Fluid Alliances: The Syrian Government’s Support for and Complicity in Terrorism,” HIS Defense, Risk, and Security Consulting June 2012, 36, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/opeds/Tabler20120630_Janes.pdf.
Jabhat Fatah al-Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.

Jabhat Fateh al-Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Jabhat Fath al Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Jabhat Fath al-Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Jabhet al-Nusra“Office of Foreign Assets Control, U.S. Department of the Treasury,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed December 12, 2014, http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Programs/Documents/terror.txt.
Jabhet al-Nusrah“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Levantine Conquest FrontDania Akkad, “Nusra confirms split with al-Qaeda ‘to protect the Syrian revolution,’” Middle East Eye, July 28, 2016, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/nusra-front-announces-official-split-al-qaeda-520293064.
Levantine Mujahideen on the Battlefields of Jihad“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Liberation of al-Sham Commission“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Liberation of the Levant Organization“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Support Front for the People of the Levant“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
Support Front for the People of Syria from the Mujahideen of Syria in the Places of JihadAndrew Tabler, “Fluid Alliances: The Syrian Government’s Support for and Complicity in Terrorism,” HIS Defense, Risk, and Security Consulting June 2012, 36, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/opeds/Tabler20120630_Janes.pdf.
Tahrir al-Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
Tahrir al-Sham Hay’at“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
The Al Nusrah Front for the People of the LevantVictoria Nuland, “Terrorist Designations of the al-Nusrah Front as an Alias for al-Qa'ida in Iraq,” U.S Department of State, December 11, 2012, https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2012/12/201759.htm.
The Defense FrontR.Green, “The Global Jihad Movement versus the Assad Regime,” Middle East Media Research Institute, March 16, 2012, http://www.memri.org/report/en/print6187.htm.
The Front for the Defence of the Syrian People“Profile: Syria’s al-Nusra Front,” BBC News, April 10, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18048033.
The Front for the Defense of the Syrian PeopleR. Green, “The Global Jihad Movement versus the Assad Regime,” Middle East Media Research Institute, March 16, 2012, http://www.memri.org/report/en/print6187.htm.
The Front for the Liberation of al Sham“Counter Terrorism Designations Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 31, 2018, https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20180531.aspx.
The Support Front for the People of Syria from the Mujahideen of Syria in the Places of Jihad““Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.
The Victory Front“Alphabetical Listing of Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons (‘SDN List’),” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 6, 2020, http://www.treasury.gov/ofac/downloads/sdnlist.txt.

Type of Organization:
Insurgent, non-state actor, terrorist, transnational, violent
Ideologies and Affiliations:
Al-Qaeda affiliated group, Islamist, jihadist, Qutbist, Salafist, Sunni
Place of Origin:
Syria and Iraq
Year of Origin:
Formed 2011, declared January 2012
Founder(s):
Abu Mohammad al-Golani, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi
Places of Operation:
Syria and Lebanon

Key Leaders

Abu Muhammad al-Golani

Overall leader of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham coalition, president of Syria

Anas Hassan Khattab

Administrative leader

Abu ‘Abdallah al-Shami'

Top sharia official of HTS

Abu Marieh Qahtani

Former Emir of al-Nusra in Deir Ez Zor, leading HTS cleric

Abu Jaber al-Shami

HTS Emir of the South

Mostafa Mahamed a.k.a. Abu Sulayman

Former director of foreign media relations, former member of the General Islamic Council, former propagandist, former senior official, former senior spiritual advisor, former top sharia official

Highest ranking member from Australia

Sheikh Bashar al-Shami

Head of HTS Shura Council

Abu al-Fatah al-Farghali

HTS jurist

Murhef Abu Qasra

Interim Defense minister of the Syrian Transitional Government

Assad Al Shibani

Foreign minister of the Syrian transitional government

History

Violent Activities

Al-Nusra Front conducted its first attack on December 23, 2011, detonating two car bombs outside a government security office in Damascus and killing 44.Kareem Fahim, “Syria Blames Al Qaeda After Bombs Kill Dozens in Damascus,” New York Times, December 23, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/middleeast/syria-says-suicide-bombers-attack-in-damascus.html. In the following months the Front drastically increased the frequency and types of attacks carried out against the Assad regime, setting itself apart from other rebel groups with the large number of suicide bombings it conducted. As al-Nusra Front seized and held territory, it began to attack civilians, minorities, and other rebel groups. After Hezbollah’s intervention in Syria on behalf of the Assad regime in mid-2013, al-Nusra Front expanded its operations into Lebanon.“Nusra Front, Syrian rebels attack government forces near Aleppo, gain ground,” Reuters, April 2, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN0WZ0O5; “Nusra Front claims Lebanon suicide attack,” Al Jazeera, September 18, 2016, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2015/01/fatal-blast-lebanon-ends-lull-attacks-2015110194313121358.html. While the Front’s attacks in Lebanon largely ended by mid-2015, the group still conducts violent activities in Syria’s southern governorates of Dara’a and Quneitra, in the Eastern Ghouta pocket of Damascus, and in the rebel-held areas of Idlib, Hama, and Aleppo

March 16-17, 2025: On March 16, Syria’s government accuses militants from Hezbollah of kidnapping three Syrian soldiers on Syrian territory and executing them on Lebanese soil. Hezbollah denies responsibility. The next day, pro-government forces launch artillery strikes on Hezbollah positions along the Syrian-Lebanese border. According to Lebanon’s Health Ministry, at least seven Lebanese are killed and another 52 are injured from artillery strikes. To prevent the further escalation of violence, on March 17, Lebanese and Syrian defense officials agree to a ceasefire and agree to enhance “coordination and cooperation between the two sides.”Kareem Chehayer, “Lebanon and Syria agree to ceasefire after 2 days of border clashes, Syrian defense ministry says,” Associated Press, March 17, 2025, https://apnews.com/article/lebanon-syria-army-border-hezbollah-hts-beb2bb44fabc186ab67e661a26b47e3b.
March 6-10, 2025: On March 6, pro-Assad gunmen ambush Syrian security forces in Jableh, northwestern Syria. The ambush kills 13 members of the General Security Directorate. The ambush launches a series of revenge killings beginning on March 7 when thousands of armed pro-government supporters target 25 locations across the coastal areas of Latakia, Tartus, Hama, and Homs governorates, which have large concentrations of the Alawite community and are also known as strongholds for Assad-loyalists. According to media reports, at least 1,500 people are killed within the four-day period, of which the majority are Alawites. The violence further leads to the displacement of more than 20,000 Syrians who fled to neighboring Lebanon for safety. Golani condemns the killings and vows to investigate the crimes and bring the perpetrators to justice.David Gritten, “Syria says operation against Assad loyalists over after deadly violence,” BBC News, March 10, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cewk4rv9v17o; Tamara Qiblawi, Sarah El Sirgany, Allegra Goodwin, and Gianluca Mezzofiore, “‘Ethnic cleansing!’ Videos show Syrian government-aligned forces reveling in massacre of minorities in coastal town,” CNN, March 17, 2025, https://www.cnn.com/2025/03/17/middleeast/syria-massacre-alawite-minority-intl-invs/index.html; Omar Albam, “Assad loyalists kill at least 13 police officers in ambush on Syrian forces in coastal town,” Associated Press, March 6, 2025, https://apnews.com/article/syria-ambush-assad-jabel-alawites-sunnis-d33e9f12773c0e09e14a56c96235226f; Alisha Rahaman Sarkar, “Over 1,200 dead as ‘mass killing’ of Alawites continues despite Syrian leader’s call for peace,” Independent (London), March 12, 2025, https://www.the-independent.com/news/world/middle-east/syria-alawite-civilian-targeted-killing-latest-b2713491.html; “As authorities investigate killings, Alawites continue to flee Syria seeking refuge in Lebanon,” Arab Weekly, March 27, 2025, https://www.thearabweekly.com/authorities-investigate-killings-alawites-continue-flee-syria-seeking-refuge-lebanon.
December 7, 2024: HTS advances into Damascus, seizing the capital and effectively ending the Assad family’s 50-year dictatorship. Syrian President Bashar al-Assad flees to Russia where his allies grant him asylum. In a statement released by the Russian Foreign Affairs Ministry, Assad reportedly left “instructions to transfer power peacefully.” After seizing the capital, HTS announced the release of thousands of individuals detained at the Sednaya military prison on the outskirts of Damascus. HTS later releases a statement promising “not to settle scores or seek revenge.”Ammar Cheikh Omar, Carol E. Lee and Corky Siemaszko, “Syrian rebels capture Damascus as President Assad flees the country,” NBC News, December 8, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/syrian-rebels-claim-captured-capital-damascus-rcna183263; Antoinette Radford, “The Assad regime ruled Syria for 50 years. Here’s how it fell in less than two weeks,” CNN, December 9, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/12/09/middleeast/timeline-syria-assad-regime-toppled-intl/index.html; Alexander Smith, “What to know about Assad's fall and what might happen next in Syria,” NBC News, December 9, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/syria-assad-fall-rebels-hts-what-now-rcna183401; Bill Hutchinson, “Ousted Syrian President Bashar Assad flees to parts unknown as rebels declare country is 'free of the tyrant',” ABC News, December 8, 2024, https://abcnews.go.com/International/where-is-bashar-al-assad/story?id=116570928.
December 6, 2024: Alleged HTS splinter groups claim to have assisted the newly formed Southern Operations Room (SOR), a coalition of local anti-regime groups led by Ahmad Awda, in the expulsion of regime forces from Daraa. According to one commander of an alleged HTS-affiliate in northern Daraa, southern HTS satellites put together “small, clandestine groups in every city and town with light weapons,” in preparation of “remov[ing] the regime, lift[ing] injustice from civilians and release[ing] detainees.” According to SOR military spokesperson, Colonel Nassim Abu Ara, rebel groups mobilized and expelled military checkpoints throughout the Daraa cities of Inkhil and Jassim, as well as the eastern countryside of al-Karak al-Sharqi.Ahmad Sharawi, “Who liberated Damascus? Unpacking the Southern Operations Room’s emergence,” Foundation for Defense of Democracies, December 9, 2024, https://www.fdd.org/analysis/op_eds/2024/12/09/who-liberated-damascus-unpacking-the-southern-operations-rooms-emergence/; Walid Al Nofal, “What was behind Daraa’s rapid fall, and did HTS participate?,” Syria Direct, December 8, 2024, https://syriadirect.org/what-was-behind-daraas-rapid-fall-and-did-hts-participate/.
November 27, 2024-December 2, 2024: On November 27, HTS-led rebel forces advance into Aleppo and its surrounding villages in the largest offensive against the Syrian government in years. The offensive, dubbed Operation Deterrence of Aggression, is launched by the newly rebranded Military Operations Command (MOB). Formerly known as the Al-Fath Al-Mubin operations room, MOC is a coalition of jihadi and anti-regime factions created by HTS in mid-2019 to unify rebel groups and military operations to prevent the formation of other rebel factions. Assad-backed forces and its Russian allies swiftly launched airstrikes on Aleppo and other rebel-held areas. On December 2, Iran-backed militias based in Iraq deploy to Syria as reinforcements. Among the Iraqi militias are fighters from Kata’ib Hezbollah, Badr Organization, and Harakat Hezbollah al-Nujaba. Nonetheless, the rebels quickly seize control of large swathes of land across the western and northwestern provinces of Hama, Idlib, and Aleppo, including critical infrastructure such as the airport and military academy of Aleppo. The rebels continue moving further south.Eyad Kourdi, Tim Lister, Sophie Tanno, Haley Britzky and Raja Razek, “Syrian and Russian jets step up strikes on rebels after opposition seizes much of Aleppo,” CNN, December 2, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/12/01/middleeast/syrian-regime-airstrikes-opposition-forces-intl/index.html; Willem Marx, “Who are the rebels who have seized control of Aleppo, Syria?,” NPR, December 2, 2024, https://www.npr.org/2024/12/02/nx-s1-5211873/hts-islamist-syria-aleppo-assad-hayat-tahrir-al-sham; Alexander Smith, “What’s happening in Syria? How an old conflict in the Middle East erupted again,” NBC News, December 2, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/syria-civil-war-rebels-aleppo-russia-iran-middle-east-conflict-rcna182406; Mostafa Salem, “Syrian rebels have taken Aleppo, the country’s second biggest city. Here’s who they are,” CNN, December 3, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/12/02/middleeast/rebel-groups-syria-explainer-intl/index.html; “Iran Update, December 2, 2024,” Institute for the Study of War, December 2, 2024, https://understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-december-2-2024; “Al-Fath Al-Mubin Operations Room [FMOR],” Global Security, accessed December 10, 2024, https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/fmor.htm.
September 5, 2024: HTS militants carry out suicide attacks targeting regime forces in Latakia province, northwestern Syria. Further details on the specific tactics used are unreported. The attacks kill 12 Syrian soldiers. “12 Syrian soldiers killed in HTS-claimed suicide attacks: war monitor,” New Arab, September 5, 2024, https://www.newarab.com/news/12-syrian-soldiers-killed-hts-claimed-suicide-attacks.
July 10, 2024: Unofficial HTS media outlet Al-Askari Media releases infographics documenting the number of sniper operations carried out by the Al-Fath Al-Mubin operations room between January and June of 2024. HTS is one of the factions included within Al-Fath Al-Mubin, along with Ahrar Al-Sham, Suqour Al-Sham, Jaysh Al-Nasr, and the Turkestan Islamic Party (TIP). According to the infographic, the HTS-linked rebel network carried out 407 sniper attacks in the first half of 2024. “Pro-Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS) Media Group Claims Over 407 Sniper Attacks By HTS-Linked Operations Room During First Half Of 2024, Declares World Record For Longest Distance Shot At '3,920 Meters',” Middle East Media Research Institute, July 11, 2024, https://www.memri.org/jttm/pro-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-hts-media-group-claims-over-407-sniper-attacks-hts-linked-operations.
March 23, 2023: HTS militants ambush Syrian soldiers in Aleppo, killing five and wounding six. Five HTS fighters are also killed and 10 are wounded.Agence France-Presse, “Syria Battle Between Army, Jihadists Kills 10: Monitor,” Barron’s, March 23, 2023, https://www.barrons.com/news/syria-battle-between-army-jihadists-kills-10-monitor-a8514a62.
October 13, 2022: HTS fighters in tanks and military vehicles take control of Afrin, Syria, after three days of fighting between HTS and its allies against Turkish-backed militias. On October 14, the Kurdish National Council (KNC) calls for HTS’s expulsion from the city.Sirwan Kajjo, “Jihadist Group Takes Over Strategic Town in Northwest Syria,” Voice of America, October 13, 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/jihadist-group-takes-over-strategic-town-in-northwest-syria/6788541.html; Wladimir van Wilgenburg, “Syrian Kurdish party calls for expulsion of HTS from Afrin,” Kurdistan 24, October 15, 2022, https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/29724-Syrian-Kurdish-party-calls-for-expulsion-of-HTS-from-Afrin.
May 30, 2022: HTS reportedly fires at least five rounds of shells toward the Idlib de-escalation zone over a period of 24 hours.Mohammad Ali, “Terrorists Shell Syria's Idlib De-escalation Zone 5 Times - Russian Military,” UrduPoint News, May 30, 2022, https://www.urdupoint.com/en/world/terrorists-shell-syrias-idlib-de-escalation-1517904.html.
August 13, 2020: HTS detains American journalist Bilal Abdul Kareem in Atmeh, northwest Syria. For the past eight years, Kareem has reported from Syria’s north, where HTS has a shrinking presence. According to media sources, Kareem was arrested due to an interview he published on the case of Tauqir Sharif—an aid worker who was detained by HTS in June 2020—which insinuated the group tortured and arbitrarily arrested Sharif.“Jihadists Detain American In NW Syria: Monitor,” Defense Post, August 14, 2020, https://www.thedefensepost.com/2020/08/14/jihadists-syria-detain-american/; “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham militants abduct US journalist Bilal Abdul-Kareem and driver in Syria,” Committee to Protect Journalists, August 17, 2020, https://cpj.org/2020/08/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-militants-abduct-us-journalist-bilal-abdul-kareem-and-driver-in-syria/.
June 2020:
- June 12: HaD, Ansar al-Islam, Ansar al-Deen, Tansiqiyat al-Jihad, and Liwa al-Mouqatilin al-Ansar announce the establishment of a new joint operations room in Idlib called “So Be Steadfast” (Fa-thbutu), which claims it seeks to confront only aggression from Russians, Nusayris, and the Iranian militias, not HTS. The groups form checkpoints around Idlib.
- June 17: HTS security officers arrest Sirajuddin Mukhtarov, a.k.a. Abu Salah al-Uzbeki, the founder of the mainly Uzbek Katibat al-Tawhid wa-l-Jihad who had recently defected from HTS to join Ansar al-Deen.
- June 22: HTS arrests former HTS and al-Nusra Front commander Abu Malik al-Tali, who had defected to form Liwa al-Mouqatilin al-Ansar, affiliated with So Be Steadfast. HTS issues a declaration forbidding its members from leaving the group without permission and barring all former members from forming new groups. In response, So Be Steadfast accuses HTS of acting on behalf of Assad and foreign occupiers.
- June 22-27: Violent clashes erupt between HTS and So Be Steadfast. On June 24, Oraidi calls for HTS and So Be Steadfast to cease their fighting and begin a judicial process to settle their disputes. That same day, al-Qaeda issues a statement condemning HTS for targeting fellow mujahideen and calling on HTS to remember the necessity of unity among the mujahideen. The fighting results in more than 100 killed and an unknown number of wounded.Elizabeth Tsurkov, Twitter post, June 12, 2020, 2:58 p.m., https://twitter.com/Elizrael/status/1271517276307697668; Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, “Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham vs. ‘So Be Steadfast’ Operations Room: An Account of Events,” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi’s Blog, June 30, 2020, https://www.aymennjawad.org/2020/06/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-vs-so-be-steadfast; “Striving for Hegemony: The HTS Crackdown on al-Qaida and Friends in Northwest Syria,” Jihadica, September 15, 2020, https://www.jihadica.com/striving-for-hegemony-the-hts-crackdown-on-al-qaida-and-friends-in-northwest-syria/.
February 1, 2020: HTS carries out suicide car bombings targeting pro-Assad forces in Aleppo.Khalil Ashrawi and Tom Perry, “Jihadist Car Bomb Attacks Target Syrian Pro-Government Forces in Aleppo,” Reuters, February 1, 2020, https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security/syrian-rebels-launch-attack-near-aleppo-rebel-sources-monitor-idUKKBN1ZV3HV.
November 17, 2019: Unidentified gunmen shoot to death Amir al-Shaiti, a judge at an HTS prison.“Gunmen Assassinate Hayat Tahrir al-Sham Official in Syria’s Idlib,” New Arab, November 17, 2019, https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2019/11/17/gunmen-assassinate-hayat-tahrir-al-sham-official-in-syrias-idlib.
November 7, 2019: HTS besieges and bombs the town of Kafr Takharim in Idlib, killing five, after popular demonstrations against the group and the HTS-affiliated Salvation Government earlier this month. Protesters take to the streets in other Idlib towns to show solidarity with those in Kafr Takharim.“Five Killed as HTS Bombs Syrian Town which Protested against Its Rule,” New Arab, November 7, 2019, https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2019/11/7/hts-bombs-syrian-town-following-protests-against-its-rule.
September 3, 2019: Rebels launch two unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in Latakia province where Russia’s Khmeimim Air Base is located. Air defenses intercept and down the drone. No casualties, injuries or damages are reported. Though the drones are often crude-looking, the Russian Defense Ministry has previously said that the UAVs used by jihadists are GPS-guided and the bomblets attached to them carry potent explosives. In Idlib, HTS militants shoot and take into custody Otham al-Hassan at a checkpoint. Othman, a local doctor, is released several hours later after the Idlib Doctor’s Union announces it is ceasing all medical treatment in the governorate.“Russian defenses intercept drone attack on Khmeimim Air Base in Syria,” RT, September 3, 2019, https://www.rt.com/news/467904-syria-khmeimim-drone-explosions/; Alaa Nassar, “Hijacking of the “freedom revolution”: HTS imprisons activists in northwest Syria (interactive map),” Syria Direct, September 15, 2019, https://syriadirect.org/news/hijacking-of-the-%E2%80%9Cfreedom-revolution%E2%80%9D-hts-imprisons-activists-in-northwest-syria-interactive-map/.
September 2, 2019: Ahmed Rilwan Abdulla, a journalist who went missing in the Maldives five years ago, was reportedly killed at sea by members of al-Nusra Front. Rilwan was long known to the al-Qaeda-linked group because of his blog posts about its presence in the Maldives and his participation in a 2011 protest calling for freedom of belief in the Maldives.Zaheena Rasheed, “Missing Maldives journalist killed by al-Qaeda affiliate,” Al Jazeera, September 2, 2019, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/missing-maldives-journalist-rilwan-killed-al-qaeda-affiliate-190901121511620.html.
August 30, 2019: HTS beats and fires live rounds at protestors in the Atmeh IDP camp as people protest Turkey’s closure of the border and inaction against the Syrian regime’s bombing campaign of Idlib.Ryan O’Farrell, Twitter post, August 30, 2019, 11:00 a.m, https://twitter.com/ryanmofarrell/status/1167451948603322368.
August 14, 2019: Rebels shoot down a Syrian warplane in Idlib near Khan Sheikhoun, capturing the pilot. The Syrian state news agency SANA claims the warplane had been hit by an anti-aircraft missile fired by militants while on a mission “to destroy the headquarters of al-Nusra Front.”Tom Perry, “Syrian rebels shoot down government warplane in northwest,” Reuters, August 14, 2019, https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSKCN1V412C.
July 21, 2019: HTS arrests Zaman al-Wasl journalist Juma'a Haj Hamdo from his house in Aleppo over his coverage of anti-HTS sentiment. Hamdo is released one week later.“Tahrir al-Sham releases Zaman al-Wasl reporter in Aleppo,” Zaman al-Wasl, July 31, 2019, https://en.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/46059/.
July 21, 2019: HTS arrests Zaman al-Wasl journalist Juma'a Haj Hamdo from his house in Aleppo over his coverage of anti-HTS sentiment. Hamdo is released one week later.“Tahrir al-Sham releases Zaman al-Wasl reporter in Aleppo,” Zaman al-Wasl, July 31, 2019, https://en.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/46059/.
July 2019: HTS is accused of arresting 11 activists and civil society members in July, forcibly disappearing four of them.Enab Baladi, “Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham Kills Activist Samer al-Saloum,” Syrian Observer, August 14, 2019, https://syrianobserver.com/EN/news/52303/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-kills-activist-samer-al-saloum.html.
June 3, 2019: HTS members arrest and beat schoolteacher Yasser al-Deddo in Kafr Owayed after he posted anti-HTS messages on Facebook.Alaa Nassar, “Hijacking of the ‘Freedom Revolution’: HTS Imprisons Activists in Northwest Syria (Interactive Map),” Syria Direct, September 15, 2019, https://syriadirect.org/news/hijacking-of-the-%E2%80%9Cfreedom-revolution%E2%80%9D-hts-imprisons-activists-in-northwest-syria-interactive-map/.
May 21, 2019: HTS opens fire on residential areas in the northern city of Aleppo. At least six civilians were wounded.“Rebel attack injures 6 civilians in Syria's Aleppo amid ongoing military showdown,” Xinhua, May 22, 2019, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/22/c_138078148.htm.
May 13, 2019: HTS, the National Liberation Front, and other rebels mount a counterattack against government forces in Hama. The fighting hits parts of a buffer zone agreed to in September 2018 under a Russian-Turkish deal that spared the region and its 3 million residents from an assault. Over 120 civilians are reportedly killed in the attacks and counterattacks.“Rebels launch counterattack in northwest Syria: statement,” Reuters, May 13, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-northwest/rebels-launch-counterattack-in-northwest-syria-statement-idUSKCN1SJ218.
May 8, 2019: After hours of shelling and airstrikes, the Syrian army captures the city of Kafr Naboudeh in Hama province after battles with HTS. The day prior, the army also captured the strategic Tal Othman area.“Syrian army captures strategic city in Hama countryside,” Xinhua, May 8, 2019, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/08/c_138043560.htm.; “Intense fighting in northwest Syria as army tries to advance,” Reuters, May 7, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security/intense-fighting-in-northwest-syria-as-army-tries-to-advance-idUSKCN1SD0X1.
May 2, 2019: Al-Nusra Front rebels claim that they have mounted several rocket attacks on army positions in northern Hama. One mortar attack in particular at the Breideej army base, injures and kills at least four Russian soldiers who were stationed in their vehicle.“Russia, Syrian army step up attacks on rebel-held northwestern Syria: residents, medics,” Reuters, May 2, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-idlib/russia-syrian-army-step-up-attacks-on-rebel-held-northwestern-syria-residents-medics-idUSKCN1S80KG.
March 2, 2019: HTS executes 10 men in Idlib, who are accused of belonging to ISIS.“HTS executes ISIS members in Idlib city,” Orient News, March 2, 2019, https://www.orient-news.net/en/news_show/163326/0/HTS-executes-ISIS-members-in-Idlib-city.
January 18, 2019: HTS releases a video showing the execution of four men accused of belonging to ISIS.Tore Hamming, Twitter post, January 18, 2019, 8:33 a.m., https://twitter.com/ToreRHamming/status/1086255260522426369.
January 10, 2019: The Free Idlib Police announce their dissolution after HTS raids one of their headquarters in the village of Al-Ghadafa.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 10th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 10, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/10/syrian-war-daily-10th-of-january-2019/#more-10029.
January 9, 2019: Ahrar al-Sham surrenders all of its land in the Sahl al-Ghab to HTS and evacuates its fighters to north Aleppo.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 9th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 9, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/09/syrian-war-daily-9th-of-january-2019/#more-10024; “أحرار الشام” تحل نفسها في ريف حماة باتفاق مع “تحرير الشام”, Enab Baladi, January 9, 2019, https://www.enabbaladi.net/archives/275505#ixzz5cEv8PwF6.
January 8, 2019: HTS attacks Ahrar al-Sham in the Sahl al-Ghab area of north Hama and takes control of 16 villages and towns in north Hama and south Idlib.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 8th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 8, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/08/syrian-war-daily-8th-of-january-2019/#more-10020.
January 7, 2019: HTS seizes the village of Hazano, Idlib, from local factions and places it under the control of its Salvation Government.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 7th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 7, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/07/syrian-war-daily-7th-of-january-2019/#more-10018.
January 6, 2019: HTS captures the town of Atarib, expelling members of the local armed factions to northern Aleppo, and closes three of the border crossings between Idlib and Afrin. HTS now controls all of rebel-held west Aleppo.Josko Baris, “Syrian War Daily – 6th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 6, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/06/syrian-war-daily-6th-of-january-2019/#more-10014.
January 5, 2019: HTS captures the final Nour al-Din al-Zenki stronghold in western Aleppo as the remnants of the group evacuate to Turkish-held Afrin. HTS also besieges the neutral town of Atarib, shelling it intensely, and captures three localities from NLF in southern Idlib.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 5th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 5, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/05/syrian-war-daily-5th-of-january-2019/#more-10010.
January 4, 2019: HTS captures the important Regiment 111 base along with seven major towns in western Aleppo from NLF. Fighting between HTS and NLF continues in southern Idlib and HTS arrests two commanders from the FSA Jaish al-Nasr in Khan Sheikhoun.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 4th of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 4, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/04/syrian-war-daily-4th-of-january-2019/#more-10007.
January 3, 2019: HTS continues to advance on al-Zenki-held towns in western Aleppo, successfully splitting al-Zenki’s territory in two. Fighting between HTS and NLF factions in Idlib intensifies, especially around the Jabal Zawiyah area.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 3rd of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 3, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/03/syrian-war-daily-3rd-of-january-2019/#more-10003.
January 2, 2019: HTS captures the rest of Daraat Izza and four more towns from al-Zenki in western Aleppo while other members of the NLF engage in clashes with HTS in southern Idlib, capturing one town from HTS.Joško Barić, “Syrian War Daily – 2nd of January 2019,” Syrian War Daily, January 2, 2019, https://syrianwardaily.com/2019/01/02/syrian-war-daily-2nd-of-january-2019/#more-10000.
January 1, 2019: HTS seizes most of Daraat Izza and at least three other towns from Nour al-Din al-Zenki as tensions escalate between the two factions. Two civilians are killed by HTS gunfire during the capture of the city.Idlib Plus, Twitter post, January 1, 2019, 2:38 p.m., https://twitter.com/IdlibPlus/status/1080186606630379520.
December 22, 2018: HTS fighters kill a child when they fire on a passenger bus in northern Idlib. قناة الجسر الفضائية, Twitter post, December 22, 2018, 4:44 a.m., https://twitter.com/jisrtv/status/1076413117700161537.
December 14, 2018: HTS attacks and kills a groups of regime soldiers with an anti-tank guided missile in southern Aleppo.Qalaat al-Mudiq, Twitter post, December 14, 2018, 2:29 p.m., https://twitter.com/QalaatAlMudiq/status/1073661160149450753.
December 4, 2018: HTS seizes the village of Zeizoun, west Hama, from Ahrar al-Sham.Radio AlKul, Twitter post, December 4, 2018, 3:53 a.m., https://twitter.com/RadioAlKul/status/1069877408101212160.
December 3, 2018: HTS fighters kill a child while storming the Ahrar al-Sham-controlled villages of Jadriyat and Ibn Gharbi in Idlib.Step News Agency, Twitter post, December 3, 2018, 2:43 p.m., https://twitter.com/Step_Agency/status/1069678520656388096.
November 24, 2018: HTS security forces fire on protestors in Idlib City with live bullets. There are no fatalities. انتهاكات جبهة النصرة, Twitter post, November 24, 2018, 5:40 a.m., https://twitter.com/JAN_Violations/status/1066280307240943616.
November 23, 2018: HTS kills journalists Raed Fares and Hamoud Jneed in Kanfrandel, Idlib governorate, the Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) later concludes.“Hay’at Tahrir al Sham Was Most Likely Behind the Assassination of Raed Fares and Hamoud Jneed in Kafranbel City,” Syrian Network for Human Rights, November 29, 2018, http://sn4hr.org/blog/2018/11/29/52887/.
November 22, 2018: HTS arrests several protestors in Saraqib, Idlib, who are angry with the quality of education provided in the city. On the same day, HTS arrests several members of the Idlib City local council and raids their homes.“"تحرير الشام" تعتقل المحتجين على تدخل "الإنقاذ" في شؤون المدارس”, Baladi News, November 22, 2018, https://www.baladi-news.com/ar/news/details/38021/; Orient أورينت, Twitter post, November 22, 2018, 3:18 p.m., https://twitter.com/OrientNews/status/1065701099489898496.
November 13, 2018: HTS launches rockets at regime positions in Khan Touman, south Aleppo. HTS also raids the house of an FSA Free Idlib Army fighter in Kafr Bel, seizing his weapons and ammunition. قناة الجسر الفضائية, Twitter post, November 13, 2018, 11:12 a.m., https://twitter.com/jisrtv/status/1062377698675359750; Idlib Plus, Twitter Post, November 13, 2018, 7:50 a.m., https://twitter.com/IdlibPlus/status/1062326950130262017.
November 2, 2018: HTS joins the National Liberation Front (NLF) in retaliatory shelling of regime positions around Idlib after regime shelling kills 10 civilians.Qalaat al-Mudiq, Twitter post, November 2, 2018, 1:33 p.m., https://twitter.com/QalaatAlMudiq/status/1058411832799608832.
October 5, 2018: HTS attacks Nour al-Din al-Zenki’s headquarters in the west Aleppo town of Kaffar Halab and then shoots at civilians protesting their actions, killing three. Officials from Zenki and the National Liberation Front condemn HTS’s actions and withdraw from the town “to prevent further clashes.”“Hay’at Tahrir Al-Sham Justifies Attack Launched on ‘Kafar-Halab’ and Targeting Anti-emonstrators,” Nedaa-Syria, October 5, 2018, http://nedaa-sy.com/en/news/8851.
September 22, 2018: HTS arrests two activists and a third unknown man in southern Idlib.“Hours after it arrested a lawyer and another citizen…Hayyaat Tahrir Al-Sham arrests a man from a village in Jabal Al-Zawiya and takes him to one of its prisons in the area,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, September 22, 2018, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=103087.
September 18, 2018: HTS arrests three activists in al-Dana, Idlib. HTS also arrests two ISIS commanders hiding in Idlib. These arrests follow a series of HTS raids on ISIS hideouts that led to the executions of more than 80 ISIS fighters.“Tahrir Al-Sham arrests 3 persons in Al-Dana town north of Idlib,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, September 18, 2018, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=102814; “After executing and killing more than 80 members of its cells…Hayyaat Tahrir Al-Sham arrests 2 “commanders” of the organization hiding in Idlib,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, September 22, 2018, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=103086.
August 8, 2018: HTS arrests 30 people accused of promoting reconciliation with the Syrian regime in southern Idlib.“أكثر من 30 فردًا من مروجي “المصالحات” في قبضة الجهاز الأمني لهيئة تحرير الشام,” Ebaa News, August 8, 2018, https://ebaa.news/news/special/2018/08/9554/.
August 3, 2018: HTS arrests 17 people in Idlib accused of promoting reconciliation with the Syrian regime or supporting ISIS.“Tahrir al-Sham announces the arrest of a group of people promoting reconciliation in rural Idlib,” Nedaa-Syria, August 3, 2018, https://nedaa-sy.com/en/news/7672.
July 30, 2018: HTS arrests three people in Idlib accused of being regime spies.“Tahrir al-Sham announces the arrest of a cell of the Syrian regime in Idlib,” Nedaa-Syria, July 30, 2018, https://nedaa-sy.com/en/news/7601.
July 13, 2018: HTS finds and arrests the head of security for ISIS cells in Idlib and beheads him.“After the assassinations of about 230 people, Hayyaat Tahrir al-Sham arrests a cell belongs to the Organization in Sahel al-Rouj and behead its Emir immediately,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, July 13, 2018, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=97722.
June 24, 2018: HTS arrests Syrian journalist Mohammed Fadl al-Janoudi in northern Latakia.“Syrian militia detains reporter in western Idlib,” Committee to Protect Journalists, July 5, 2018, https://cpj.org/2018/07/syrian-militia-detains-reporter-in-western-idlib.php.
June 5, 2018: HTS attacks regime forces in Tel Sultan, Idlib, alongside al-Qaeda affiliate Hurras al-Din.“Two days after arresting tens of citizens southeast of Idlib, the Turkistanis, Hayyaat Tahrir al-Sham, and Hurras al-Dien attack sites of the regime forces in the area,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, June 5, 2018, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=94362.
May 29, 2018: HTS kills one and arrests eight men it accuses of being ISIS members in Khan Sheikhoun, Idlib.Obaida al-Nabwani, “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham kills and arrests Islamic State members in Idlib; Kurdish organizations call to expulse Turkish forces from Afrin,” SMART News Agency, May 30, 2018, https://smartnews-agency.com/en/reports/298999/hayat-tahrir-alsham-kills-and-arrests-islamic-state-members-in.
April 15, 2018: HTS launches a new wave of attacks against JTS, capturing the strategic towns of Murek and Khan Sheikhoun along with 11 other villages in southern Idlib.“After the death of hundreds of citizens and fighters… Hayyaat Tahrir al-Sham continues its new round within the abolition war and takes the control of a crossing connected to the regime’s controlled areas,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, April 15, 2018, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=89536.
April 7, 2018: HTS and JTS reach a one-week ceasefire under mediation from Faylaq al-Sham, ending the 49-day bout of infighting.Mais Noor Aldeen, “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham and Syrian Liberation Front reach ceasefire agreement, Northern Syria,” SMART News Agency, April 7, 2018, https://smartnews-agency.com/en/wires/282882/hayat-tahrir-alsham-and-syrian-liberation-front-reach-ceasefire-agreement.
April 6, 2018: HTS and JTS attack each other with heavy weapons in the areas of Ariha and Maarat al-Nu’man, Idlib.Mohammad al-Haj, “Hayat Tahrir al-Sham clashes with Syrian Liberation Front in Northern Syria, and Jayroud committee withdraws from negotiations with Russia,” SMART News Agency, April 6, 2018, https://smartnews-agency.com/en/reports/282744/hayat-tahrir-alsham-clashes-with-syrian-liberation-front-in-northern.
April 1, 2018: HTS temporarily detains the negotiating committee of JTS as its convoys enter Idlib city to negotiated a ceasefire between the two groups.“Tahrir al-Sham holds negotiating delegation representing JTS & Soqour al-Sham,” Nedaa-Syria, April 1, 2018, https://www.nedaa-sy.com/en/news/5216.
March 22, 2018: HTS renews its attacks on JTS held towns in west Aleppo countryside with heavy weapons, including tanks and artillery, wounding several civilians.“Hayyet Tahrir al-Sham is Massing Troops in West Aleppo amid Renewed Clashes with “Tahrir Syria”,” NSO-Sy, March 22, 2018, https://nso.news/Details/1016/Hayyet-Tahrir-al-Sham-is-Massing-Troops-in-West-Aleppo-amid-Renewed-Clashes-with-“Tahrir-Syria”/en.
March 11, 2018: HTS renews attacks against JTS towns following a 48-hour ceasefire. Several civilians are killed and wounded as HTS shells Basrton, Saadia, and A’jel in west Aleppo.“The Dispute of Tahrir al-Sham and Tahrir Syria to square one,” Nedaa-Sy, March 22, 2018, https://nedaa-sy.com/en/week_issues/28.
March 1, 2018: HTS kills several JTS fighters and takes control of the towns of Maaret Misrin, al-Tawame, Kafer Halab, Miznaz, al-Qanater checkpoint, reef al-Mouhandeen, Telaad, Termanin, Zaradna, Hazre, Deir Hasan, and Kafer Yahmoul in Idlib. The group is accused of releasing recently captured ISIS fighters to fight against JTS.“Hayat Tahrir al-Sham announces control of Maarat Misrin, Northern Idlib, and killing of Syrian Liberation Front fighters,” SMART News Agency, March 1, 2018, https://smartnews-agency.com/en/breakingNews/269930/hayat-tahrir-alsham-announces-control-of-maarat-misrin-northern-idlib.
February 20, 2018: HTS launches wide-scale attacks on Jabhat Tahrir Suriya (JTS), the new rebel group formed two days prior through the merger of Nour al-Din al-Zinki and Ahrar al-Sham. On February 23 HTS seizes two villages in Idlib while losing one village in Aleppo.Tamer Osman, “Syrian Islamist factions join forces against Hayat Tahrir al-Sham,” al-Monitor, February 28, 2018, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/02/syria-liberation-front-battes-against-hayat-ahrar-al-sham.html.
February 3, 2018: HTS shoots down a Russian Su-25 plane over Idlib and kill the pilot after he opens fire on them with his sidearm.Suleiman Al-Khalidi and Polina Devitt, “Syrian rebels down Russian plane, kill pilot,” Reuters, February 3, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-airplane/syrian-rebels-down-russian-plane-kill-pilot-idUSKBN1FN0IU.
February 2-3, 2018: Civilians in the rebel-held town of Binnish protest against HTS, tearing down the group’s flag and replacing it with the Free Syrian Army flag after accusing the group of not doing enough to deter regime advances. HTS fighters kill one civilian in the ensuing clashes.“Civilian casualties in airstrike on Idlib countryside and Binnish locals attack Salvation Government ‎Police Station,” Northern Syria Observer, Febraury 2, 2018, https://www.nso-sy.com/Details/899/Civilian-casualties-in-airstrike-on-Idlib-countryside-and-Binnish-locals-attack-Salvation-Government-%E2%80%8EPolice-Station/en; “Syria|Idlib rif|Funeral of the demonstrator killed by HTS in Binnish (video),” Yalla Souriya, February 3, 2018, https://yallasouriya.wordpress.com/2018/02/04/syriaidlib-riffuneral-of-the-demonstrator-killed-by-hts-in-binnish-video/.
January 31, 2018: HTS executes two individuals accused of assassinating HTS fighters in Daraat Izza, north Syria.Aleppo 24 News, Twitter post, January 31, 2018, 6:22 a.m., https://twitter.com/24Aleppo/status/958661848114630656.
2017: Human rights organizations accuse HTS of arresting 183 people in 2017, including political activists and local journalists.Alaa Nassar, “Hijacking of the “freedom revolution”: HTS imprisons activists in northwest Syria (interactive map),” Syria Direct, September 15, 2019, https://syriadirect.org/news/hijacking-of-the-%E2%80%9Cfreedom-revolution%E2%80%9D-hts-imprisons-activists-in-northwest-syria-interactive-map/.
December 2017: In Damascus, HTS and Ahrar al-Sham launch “Phase 2” of their offensive against regime forces stationed in the vehicle management base in Harasta. The rebel forces manage to besiege the base for several days, killing seven generals in the fighting.“Conflict Summary December 21, 2017-January 10, 2018,” Carter Center, January 10, 2018, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.12.21-2018.01.10.pdf.
December 26, 2017: HTS arrests anti-HTS activist Samer al-Saloum on charges of speaking against the militant group. Saloum is executed by HTS sometime around April 2019.Enab Baladi, “Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham Kills Activist Samer al-Saloum,” Syrian Observer, August 14, 2019, https://syrianobserver.com/EN/news/52303/hayat-tahrir-al-sham-kills-activist-samer-al-saloum.html.
November 2017: On November 7, clashes renew between HTS and Nour al-Din al-Zenki in Idlib along the 12-town border between the two factions.“Weekly Conflict Summary November 2-8, 2017,” Carter Center, November 8, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.02-08.pdf. Fighting continues for a week as multiple armed factions side with Zenki against HTS until a ceasefire takes hold on November 15.“Weekly Conflict Summary November 9-15, 2017,” Carter Center, November 15, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.09-15.pdf. On November 27, HTS launches another counter-offensive against ISIS in north Hama after ISIS reinforcements arrived from Deir Ez Zor through regime territory. On the same day, the regime expands its ongoing offensive against the rebels by seizing two towns from HTS near Khanasir, Aleppo.“Weekly Conflict Summary November 23-29, 2017,” Carter Center, November 29, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.23-29.pdf. These positions are recaptured by HTS in a counter-attack launched on November 29.“Weekly Conflict Summary November 30-December 6, 2017,” Carter Center, December 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.30-12.05.pdf.
October 2017: On October 9, ISIS fighters backed with heavy armor enter rebel-controlled Hama from regime-controlled Hama sparking clashes with HTS. Over the next two weeks HTS uses artillery, tanks, and SVBIEDs to counter the ISIS offensive, reversing most of ISIS’s gains.“Weekly Conflict Summary October 12-18, 2017,” Carter Center, October 18, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.10.12-18.pdf. At the same time, the Syrian regime launches a new offensive against HTS in Hama, targeting the villages the group had recently recaptured from ISIS. HTS launches a new counter-offensive against the regime in response, utilizing at least two SVBIEDs.Weekly Conflict Summary October 19-25, 2017,” Carter Center, October 25, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.10.19-25.pdf; “ Weekly Conflict Summary October 26 – November 1, 2017,” Carter Center, November 1, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.10.26-11.01.pdf.
September 19, 2017: HTS units and fighters from the Turkistani Islamic Party launch an attack against regime positions in northern Hama using at least one SVBIED, briefly seizing control of the villages of Ma’an and Tulaysiyah.“Weekly Conflict Summary September 14-20, 2017,” Carter Center, September 20, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weeklyconflictsummary2017.09.14-20.pdf.
September 6, 2017: HTS Elite Forces and the PMC Malhama Tactical raid regime positions in the Air Force Intelligence complex of Aleppo.“Weekly Conflict Summary August 31-September 06, 2017,” Carter Center, September 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weeklyconflictsummaryfinal2017.08.31-09.06.pdf.
August 28, 2017: Sayyed Barsha, commander of the rebel group Nour al-Din al-Zenki is assassinated by unknown agents. Zenki accuses HTS of carrying out the assassination amid ongoing clashes and kidnappings linked to familial disputes within the Barsha clan, whose members are split between HTS and Zenki.“Weekly Conflict Summary August 31-September 06, 2017,” Carter Center, September 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weeklyconflictsummaryfinal2017.08.31-09.06.pdf.
July 19 – July 23, 2017: HTS and Ahrar al-Sham engage in clashes across Idlib and North Latakia, with HTS ultimately seizing control of all of the border crossings with Turkey. On July 23, the two factions reach an agreement temporarily ending hostilities. While part of the ceasefire allows militias which had been forcibly conscripted into HTS as it captured new territory to defect, HTS is not required to return any of its captured towns.“Exclusive: A written sheet of the new agreement held between Ahrar al-Sham and Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham,” el-Dorar al-Shamia, July 23, 2017, https://www.nedaa-sy.com/en/news/779.
July 14, 2017: HTS and Ahrar al-Sham clash near the Idlib city of Tal Touqan.Qalaat al Mudiq, Twitter post, July 14, 2017, 12:57pm, https://twitter.com/QalaatAlMudiq/status/885951443106226176;
Aleppo 24, Twitter post, July 14, 2017, 10:42 am, https://twitter.com/24Aleppo/status/885917512600346624.
June 24, 2017: HTS launches an offensive against al-Baath City, Quneitra.“Syria says Israel strike kills civilians,” Reuters, June 24, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-israel-idUSKBN19F0O4;
“Fighting intensifies in Syrian Golan Heights,” Al-Jazeera June 26, 2017, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/06/fighting-intensifies-syrian-golan-heights-170626033648183.html.
June 23, 2017: HTS kills several Hezbollah fighters in raids along the Lebanon-Syria border in late June.“Two Hezbollah fighters dead in militant ambush,” Daily Star (Lebanon), June 23, 2017, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2017/Jun-23/410618-two-hezbollah-fighters-dead-in-militant-ambush.ashx;
Qalaat al-Mudiq, Twitter post, June 23, 2017, 4:33am, https://twitter.com/QalaatAlMudiq/status/878214409973374976.
June 19, 2017: HTS assassinates the commander of the First Brigade of the Golan Regiment, a pro-government militia in Quneitra.“Pro-Assad Militia Commander Killed in Quneitra Suicide Blast,” Syrian Observer, June 21, 2017, http://syrianobserver.com/EN/News/32921.
June 13, 2017: HTS kidnaps two FSA commanders in Idlib, Nidal Haj Ali and Ahmed al-Mousa.“هيئة تحرير الشام تختطف عدداً من قادة إدلب العسكريين,” Akhbar Ala’an, June 14, 2017, http://www.akhbaralaan.net/news/exclusive/2017/6/14/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%AA%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%81-%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%8B-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%A5%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86;
Charles Lister, Twitter post, June 14, 2017, 12:58pm, https://twitter.com/Charles_Lister/status/875079990043435009
June 8, 2017: HTS attacks FSA and Faylaq al Sham units in the town of Maraat al-Numan, killing FSA Colonel Tasyeer al-Samahi.Mat Nasheed, “Militants stifle civil society in Syria's Idlib,” Al-Monitor, July 26, 2017, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/ru/contents/articles/originals/2017/07/syria-idlib-militants-civil-society.html;
Charles Lister, Twitter post, June 8, 2017, 11:44 a.m., https://twitter.com/Charles_Lister/status/872887156683018240.
March 21 – 24, 2017: HTS launches an offensive in Northern Hama, carrying out four suicide bombings over the course of the offensive.Thomas Joscelyn, “Analysis: Insurgents launch major offensive against Assad regime in Hama province,” Long War Journal, March 24, 2017, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/03/analysis-insurgents-launch-major-offensive-against-assad-regime-in-hama-province.php.
March 18 – 23, 2017: HTS claims responsibility for three suicide bombings targeting regime positions in Jobar, Damascus.Ebaa Agency, YouTube video, March 23, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_z8woU_amo; Ebaa Agency, YouTube video, March 24, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5S3sBMEPwAM.
March 11, 2017: Al-Nusra Front’s HTS coalition claims responsibility for two suicide bombings in Damascus, killing at least 74 people. HTS claims it targeted Iraqi militiamen while local activists stated that those killed were Shiite pilgrims.“Syria Situation Report: March 9 - 17, 2017,” Institute for the Study of War, March 17, 2017, http://iswresearch.blogspot.com/2017/03/syria-situation-report-march-9-17-2017.html?m=1.
February 26, 2017: Al-Nusra Front’s HTS coalition claims responsibility for five suicide bombings at the Homs City Military Security Headquarters.“Syria Conflict: Weekly Conflict Summary,” Carter Center, March 3, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.02.23-03.01.pdf.
February 12, 2017: Al-Nusra Front’s HTS coalition claims responsibility for two suicide bombings in the city of Dara’a.Thomas Joscelyn, “Jihadists and other rebels assault Syrian regime positions in southern city,” Long War Journal, February 1, 2017, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/02/jihadists-and-other-rebels-assault-syrian-regime-positions-in-southern-city.php.
January 18, 2017: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for a suicide bombing attack in Damascus, killing seven people.“Former Nusra Front says it carried out Damascus bombing,” Reuters, January 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-nusra-idUSKBN1522WI. The following week, the group launches an attack against several Free Syrian Army rebel groups in northwestern Syria.Tom Perry, “Jihadists crush Syria rebel group, in a blow to diplomacy,” Reuters, January 25, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-group-idUSKBN1591AF.
Mid-July 2016: Al-Nusra Front is blamed for launching two rocket attacks in the southern Syrian town of Baath City, killing civilians.“Hezbollah says Golan explosions caused by Nusra Front rocket fire,” Reuters, July 20, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-israel-hezbollah-idUSKCN10019L.
Early July 2016: Al-Nusra Front reportedly captures and takes hostage the commander of the Western-backed Jaish al-Tahrir rebel group as well as “scores” of the commander’s aides and fighters, according to reports.“Nusra captures leader, fighters of Western-backed rebels in northern Syria,” Reuters, July 3, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-nusra-idUSKCN0ZJ0F3.
June 2016: Al-Nusra Front continues its offensive against Assad forces, reportedly killing dozens of military and civilian targets in Aleppo. In early June, a Russian ceasefire monitoring agency claims that al-Nusra Front shelled down 40 people in Aleppo using rocket launchers, canons, mortars, and anti-aircraft missiles.“Russia says Al Nusra shelling military, civilian areas in Aleppo,” Reuters, June 10, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-aleppo-idUSKCN0YW0FR.
Early May 2016: Russia highlights increased violence in Aleppo by al-Nusra Front and claims that the group is responsible for thwarting an extended truce.“UPDATE 1-Russia blames Nusra Front for wrecking planned truce in Syria's Aleppo,” Reuters, May 4, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-russia-syria-aleppo-idUSL5N1814MD.
April 5, 2016: Al-Nusra Front shoots down a Syrian warplane, capturing the pilot.“Rebels shoot down second Syrian jet in a month,” Reuters, April 5, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-jet-idUSKCN0X214E.
April 1, 2016: Al-Nusra Front carries out three suicide bombings targeting Assad forces near a hillside south of Aleppo.“Nusra Front, Syrian rebels attack government forces near Aleppo, gain ground,” Reuters, April 2, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN0WZ0O5.
Early-Mid March 2016: Al-Nusra Front and other Islamist insurgent groups launch at least 100 rockets on a Kurdish residential area of Aleppo, killing at least nine civilians and wounding dozens of others, according to SOHR.“At least 9 dead, dozens injured in attacks against Kurdish quarter in Aleppo,” Reuters, March 6, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-idUSKCN0W80RU. Al-Nusra Front later attacks government forces and briefly captures the village of al-Ais before government forces retake the village.“Islamist fighters attack Syrian government forces south of Aleppo: Syrian Observatory,” Reuters, March 7, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-aleppo-nusra-idUSKCN0W91Y8. The group later seizes bases and weapons, including anti-tank missiles, from Western-backed rebel groups in northwest Syria.“Syrian rebel commander says Nusra Front seized ‘light weapons and ammunition,’” Reuters, March 14, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-rebels-idUSKCN0WG17D.
Late February 2016: Al-Nusra Front rejects a ceasefire and calls for intensified attacks against Bashar al-Assad and his regime.“Nusra Front rejects Syria truce, urges stronger attacks: audio statement,” Reuters, February 26, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-nusra-idUSKCN0VZ1ZZ.
November 16, 2015: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for a suicide bombing that it says killed top commanders in the ISIS-affiliated Yarmouk Martyrs Brigades.“Nusra Front says kills Islamic State-linked Syrian rebel leaders,” Reuters, November 16, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-south-idUSKCN0T517K20151116.
October 12, 2015: Al-Nusra Front calls for attacks against Syrian Alawites in retaliation for Russian airstrikes.Suleiman al-Khaldi and Ahmed Tolba, “Nusra Front urges attacks on Syria's Alawites to avenge Russian bombings,” Reuters, October 12, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-nusra-idUSKCN0S625220151013.
September 9, 2015: Al-Nusra Front seizes the Abu al-Duhur airbase from Assad regime forces, thereby capturing the final regime position in Idlib province.“Syria conflict: Rebels seize key Idlib airbase,” BBC News, September 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34196438.
August 1, 2015: Al-Nusra Front releases a video of the July 31 attack and kidnapping operation against Division 30 rebels. In the video, one member boasts that al-Nusra Front has “cut of the hands of the West and Americans.”Associated Press, “Syrian Rebel Group Leaves Their HQ After Clash With Al-Qaida,” Military Times, August 1, 2015, https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2015/08/01/syrian-rebel-group-leaves-their-hq-after-clash-with-al-qaida/ Meanwhile, a religious court run by al-Nusra Front executes 10 people in Aleppo, two on charges of adultery and eight on charges of collusion with the Syrian government, according to SOHR.Agence France Presse, “Qaeda-led court executes 10 in Syria's Aleppo: monitor,” Yahoo News, August 1, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/qaeda-led-court-executes-10-syrias-aleppo-monitor-164224807.html.
July 31, 2015: Al-Nusra Front attacks the U.S.-trained Division 30 (a.k.a. New Syrian Forces) rebel unit, killing five of its fighters, wounding 18, and kidnapping 20.Anne Barnard and Eric Schmitt, “Rivals of ISIS Attack U.S.-Backed Syrian Rebel Group,” New York Times, July 31, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/01/world/middleeast/nusra-front-attacks-us-backed-syrian-rebel-group.html;
Associated Press, “Syrian Rebel Group Leaves Their HQ After Clash With Al-Qaida,” Associated Press Military Times, August 1, 2015, https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2015/08/01/syrian-rebel-group-leaves-their-hq-after-clash-with-al-qaida/. According to multiple rebel sources who spoke to McClatchy, al-Nusra Front was tipped off by Turkish intelligence.McClatchyitchell Prothero, “Syrian rebels: Turkey tipped al Qaida group to U.S.-trained fighters,” Miami Herald, August 24, 2015, https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/article32176596.html.
July 15, 2015: The Army of Conquest coalition—to which al-Nusra Front belongs—announces its offensive against the towns of Fuaa and Kafraya, reportedly the last two Shiite localities held by the regime in Idlib.Agence France-Presse, “Qaeda, allies attack Shiite villages in northwest Syria,” Yahoo News, July 15, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/qaeda-allies-attack-shiite-villages-northwest-syria-155644254.html.
July 10, 2015: After being held captive for a week—allegedly by al-Nusra Front members—a priest in Idlib province, Syria, is released by his captors.Agence France-Presse, “Kidnapped Franciscan priest released in Syria,” Yahoo News, July 10, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/kidnapped-franciscan-priest-released-syria-195928867.html.
July 3, 2015: Al-Nusra Front and Ahrar al-Sham announce the formation of a new coalition—Ansar al-Shariah—as they and other rebel groups fight government forces in Aleppo.Anne Barnard and Maher Samaan, “Aleppo Fighting Flares as Syria Insurgents Attack,” New York Times, July 3, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/04/world/middleeast/aleppo-fighting-flares-up-as-syria-rebels-renew-attacks.html.
July 2, 2015: Al-Nusra Front and other rebel groups, including Ahrar al-Sham launch a major offensive to gain control of the divided city of Aleppo, Syria.Reuters, “Syrian Islamist Insurgents Launch Battle to Seize Government-Held Aleppo,” Newsweek, July 2, 2015, http://www.newsweek.com/syrian-islamist-insurgents-launch-battle-seize-government-held-aleppo-349792.
June 10, 2015: Members of al-Nusra Front kill 23 Druze Syrians in the village of Qalb al-Lawzi in the north of Idlib’s province.Anne Barnard, “Syrian Druse Reconsider Alliances After Deadly Attack,” New York Times, June 11, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/12/world/middleeast/nusra-front-druse-syria-attack.html. Three days later and after international outcry, al-Nusra Front releases an official statement acknowledging that its members attacked Druze but saying that they did so “in clear violation of the leadership’s views.”Agence France-Presse, “Al-Qaeda Syria branch tries to reassure Druze after shoot-out,” Yahoo News, June 13, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/al-qaeda-syria-branch-tries-reassure-druze-shoot-193647656.html.
June 2, 2015: Al-Nusra Front announces that it has attacked two Hezbollah outposts in eastern Lebanon, killing several Hezbollah members.“Nusra Front attacks Hezbollah outposts near Arsal,” Daily Star (Beirut), June 2, 2015, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2015/Jun-02/300248-nusra-front-attacks-hezbollah-outposts-near-arsal.ashx.
May 22, 2015: Al-Nusra Front is part of an offensive that seizes a hospital from government forces in Idlib province.“Insurgents in Syria seize hospital from army – monitor,” Reuters UK, May 22, 2015, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/05/22/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-idUKKBN0O70QK20150522.
May 19, 2015: The Army of Conquest coalition, including al-Nusra Front, captures the Assad regime’s largest remaining military base in Idlib province.“Rebels take largest remaining army base in Syria's Idlib: monitor,” i24 News, May 19, 2015, http://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/middle-east/71756-150519-rebels-take-largest-remaining-army-base-in-syria-s-idlib-monitor.<
May 4, 2015: Al-Nusra Front fighters, including a suicide bomber, launch an attack in Damascus.Associated Press, “Nusra-linked Insurgents, Including Suicide Bomber, Strike Syrian Capital,” Haaretz (Tel Aviv), May 4, 2015, http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/1.654916.
April 24, 2015: Al-Nusra Front and other Islamist groups take control of Jisr al-Shughur, the last major regime-held town in Idlib province.Agence France-Presse, “Qaeda, allies advance on Syrian regime bastion: monitor,” Yahoo News, April 24, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/qaeda-fighters-advance-regime-northwest-syria-105824749.html.
April 1, 2015: Al-Nusra Front joins a rebel coalition to seize Nasib crossing, the only functioning border crossing with Jordan, as well as three military posts nearby.Agence France-Presse, “Rebels seize Syria-Jordan border as IS storms Damascus,” Yahoo News, April 1, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/militants-seize-most-yarmuk-refugee-camp-damascus-001902378.html;
Associated Press, “Syrian Rebels Capture Border Crossing With Jordan,” Voice of America, April 2, 2015, https://www.voanews.com/world-news/middle-east-dont-use/syrian-rebels-capture-border-crossing-jordan.
March 27, 2015—March 28, 2015: Al-Nusra Front makes advances in Idlib city in northwest Syria, clashing with regime forces. Dozens of militants and four regime soldiers die as a result of the clash, according to SOHR.Agence France-Presse, “Islamists advance in fierce clashes for Syria's Idlib: monitor,” Daily Mail (London), March 27, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/afp/article-3014799/Islamists-advance-fierce-clashes-Syrias-Idlib-monitor.html. By March 28, al-Nusra Front has seized almost all of Idlib city from regime forces.Associated Press, “Islamic fighters led by al-Qaida in Syria seize major city,” Yahoo News, March 28, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/al-qaida-syria-seizes-large-parts-northern-city-102702400.html.
March 12, 2015: Fifty are left dead when al-Nusra Front rebels clash with the Assad regime in Latakia province, northwest Syria.Agence France-Presse, “Clashes between Assad and Nusra forces kill 50,” Al Arabiya, March 12, 2015, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2015/09/09/Security-forces-lock-down-Beirut-ahead-of-meeting-protest.html.
February 28, 2015: Al-Nusra Front kills dozens of U.S.-backed rebels as it captures a military compound in northern Syria.Agence France-Presse, “Dozens dead as Nusra takes US-backed Syria rebel base: activists,” Daily Star (Beirut), February 28, 2015, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Feb-28/289135-dozens-dead-as-nusra-takes-us-backed-syria-rebel-base-activists.ashx.
February 1, 2015: A bomb explodes on a bus carrying Shiite Lebanese pilgrims to shrines in Damascus, killing at least six and wounding 27. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for the attack.Anne Barnard and Hwaida Saad, “Explosion Kills at Least 6 on Bus of Lebanese Pilgrims Visiting Shrines in Syria,” New York Times, February 1, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/02/world/middleeast/explosion-kills-at-least-6-on-bus-of-lebanese-pilgrims-visiting-shrines-in-syria.html?_r=0.
January 29, 2015: Al-Nusra Front attacks a Western-backed Syrian rebel group west of Aleppo.Tom Perry, “Al Qaeda in Syria attacks Western-backed rebels,” Reuters, January 29, 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria/al-qaeda-in-syria-attacks-western-backed-rebels-idUSKBN0L21ZF20150129.
January 18, 2015: Al-Nusra Front claims to have shot down a Syrian army plane, killing 35 people. The cargo plane was carrying food and ammunition.“Al Qaeda says downs Syrian cargo plane, army says fog causes crash,” Reuters, January 18, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/18/mideast-crisis-syria-plane-idUSL6N0UX05G20150118.
January 12, 2015: After a raid targeting Islamists in Lebanon’s prisons, al-Nusra Front threatens captive Lebanese soldiers.“Lebanese soldiers after prison raid: Twitter account,” Reuters, January 12, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/12/us-mideast-crisis-lebanon-nusra-idUSKBN0KL0LJ20150112.
January 10, 2015: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for a double suicide attack in Tripoli, Lebanon, killing at least seven people and wounding more than 30 others. Lebanon’s interior minister attributes the attack to ISIS.“Syria's al Qaeda wing claims Lebanon attack: Twitter account,” Reuters, January 10, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/10/us-lebanon-attack-claim-idUSKBN0KJ0OL20150110;
Nazih Siddiq, “Suicide attack at Lebanese cafe kills at least seven,” Reuters, January 11, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/11/us-lebanon-attack-idUSKBN0KJ0ML20150111;
Tom Perry, “Islamic State carried out Lebanon cafe attack – minister,” Reuters, January 11, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/11/us-lebanon-attack-idUSKBN0KK0KS20150111.
January 8-9, 2015: Al-Nusra Front militants fight to capture two Shiite villages in Syria but are repelled.“Syria's al Qaeda attacks besieged Shi'ite villages,” Reuters, January 9, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/01/09/us-mideast-crisis-villages-idUSKBN0KI0KI20150109.
December 5, 2014: Al-Nusra Front kills a captured Lebanese soldier.Laila Bassam, “Syria's Al Qaeda Offshoot Nusra Says It Killed Lebanese Soldier,” Reuters, December 5, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/12/05/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0JJ28N20141205.
October 5, 2014: Al-Nusra Front attacks Hezbollah bases in Lebanon, killing 10 of its fighters.Mariam Karouny, “Hezbollah Loses 10 Fighters in Sunday Clashes with Nusra: Source,” Reuters, October 6, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/06/us-lebanon-security-idUSKCN0HV12920141006.
September 19, 2014: Al-Nusra Front kills one of 10 Lebanese soldiers held captive, according to a Twitter statement by the group.“Syria’s Nusra Front ‘Kills Lebanese Soldier,’” Al Jazeera, September 19, 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/09/syria-nusra-front-kills-lebanese-soldier-2014919193711483251.html.
August 28, 2014: Al-Nusra Front kidnaps 45 U.N. peacekeepers from the Syrian side of the Golan Heights.Ben Hubbard, “Affiliate of Al Qaeda Confirms Capture of U.N. Peacekeepers in Syria,” The New York Times, August 31, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/01/world/middleeast/un-peacekeepers-captured-in-syria.html.
August 27, 2014: Al-Nusra Front takes control of the Quneitra border crossing with Israel from Syrian forces.“Militants Seize Golan Heights Crossing,” Reuters, August 27, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/27/pictures-report-idUSRTR4406T.
August 24, 2014: Al-Nusra Front releases a U.S. hostage kidnapped in 2012.“UPDATE 5-Kidnappers Free American Missing in Syria Since 2012,” Reuters, August 24, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/25/syria-crisis-usa-hostage-idUSL5N0QU12620140825.
June 20, 2014: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for a car bomb attack in Syria’s Hama province that leaves at least 34 people dead and more than 50 others wounded.“Nusra Front Claims Deadly Blast in Syria’s Hama,” Al Arabiya, June 20, 2014, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/2014/06/20/Nusra-Front-claims-deadly-blast-in-Syria-s-Hama.html.
June 5, 2014: Al-Nusra Front kills a 14-year-old Syrian boy and throws his body onto the side of the road in east Lebanon, according to security sources.“Nusra Front Kills 14-Year-Old Syrian in East Lebanon,” Daily Star, June 5, 2014, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Jun-05/259007-nusra-front-kills-14-year-old-syrian-in-east-lebanon.ashx.
Late May 2014: Al-Nusra Front briefly kidnaps and tortures three teenagers in eastern Lebanon over an incident linked to trading cigarettes.“Nusra Front Kills 14-Year-Old Syrian in East Lebanon,” Daily Star, June 5, 2014, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Jun-05/259007-nusra-front-kills-14-year-old-syrian-in-east-lebanon.ashx.
May 25, 2014: Four suicide bombers attack targets in Syria’s Idlib province, reportedly on behalf of al-Nusra Front. One of the suicide bombers is a U.S. citizen.Mark Hosenball, “U.S. Investigates Reports of American Suicide Bomber in Syria,” Reuters, May 28, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/28/us-syria-usa-bomber-idUSKBN0E824S20140528;
“State Department Says U.S. Citizen Was Suicide Bomber in Syria,” Reuters, May 30, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/31/us-syria-usa-bomber-idUSKBN0EA2BO20140531.
May 5, 2014: Al-Nusra Front and allied rebel groups gain control of the Syrian village of al-Sabha, killing five civilians. Clashes continue between al-Nusra Front and ISIS in the outskirts of Deir el-Zour.“Bomb in Syria's Idlib Kills 30 Government Fighters: Monitoring Group,” Reuters, May 6, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/06/us-syria-crisis-blast-idUSBREA4505X20140506.
March 27, 2014: Al-Nusra Front releases a video showing the group preparing to execute two Saudi fighters.“Video Shows Syria’s al-Nusra Front preparing to execute Saudis,” Al Arabiya, March 27, 2014, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/03/27/ISIS-kill-two-Saudis.html.
March 16, 2014: A suicide bomber detonates a car bomb in Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley, killing two people and injuring 14 others. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for the attack.Susanna Capelouto and Hamdi Alkhshali, “Suicide Car Bomb Kills Two in Lebanon,” CNN, March 16, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/16/world/meast/lebanon-suicide-car-bomb/.
March 15, 2014: Al-Nusra Front fights the Syrian army to defend the former’s hold on Yabroud, a city north of Damascus near the border with Lebanon.Stephen Kalin, “Syrian Forces Enter Last Rebel Bastion Near Lebanese Border,” Reuters, March 15, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/15/us-syria-crisis-town-idUSBREA2E06P20140315.
March 9, 2014: Al-Nusra Front releases 13 nuns held hostage since December 2013 in exchange for 150 female prisoners.“Syrian Rebels Release Group of Nuns from Greek Orthodox Convent Held Captive since December,” Associated Press, March 10, 2014, http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/03/10/syrian-rebels-release-group-nuns-from-greek-orthodox-convent-held-captive-since/.
March 5, 2014: U.N. human rights investigators release a report holding al-Nusra Front and other rebel groups responsible for besieging 45,000 people in two Shiite towns in Syria’s Aleppo province.Stephanie Nebehay, “World Powers Responsible for Failing to Stop Syria War Crimes –UN,” Reuters March 5, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/05/syria-crisis-warcrimes-idUSL6N0M13U320140305.
March 5, 2014: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for firing three rockets in Lebanon, near the border with Syria.“Nusra Front in Lebanon Claims Rocket Attack,” Daily Star, March 5, 2014, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Mar-05/249354-nusra-front-in-lebanon-claims-rocket-attack.ashx.
February 22, 2014: A suicide bomber detonates a car bomb in Lebanon, killing two Lebanese soldiers and one civilian. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for the attack.“Suicide Bomber Kills Three in Lebanon: Security Sources,” Reuters, February 22, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/23/us-lebanon-blast-idUSBREA1L0U620140223.
February 8, 2014: An al-Nusra Front operative detonates a car bomb at a checkpoint in al-Jalma village, Hama province, killing 20 members of the security forces and the National Defense Force, according to SOHR.“Islamist Fighters Seize Alawite Village in Central Syria,” Reuters, February 9, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/09/us-syria-crisis-hama-idUSBREA180WN20140209.
February 1, 2014: An al-Nusra Front suicide bomber detonates a car bomb in eastern Lebanon, killing four people and wounding 18 others.“Deadly Car Bomb Strikes Eastern Lebanon,” Al Jazeera America, February 1, 2014, http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/2/1/deadly-car-bomb-strikeseasternlebanon.html;
Rakan al-Fakih and Thomas El-Basha, “Suicide Car Bomb Kills at Least Four in Lebanon’s Hermel,” Daily Star, February 1, 2014, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Feb-01/246080-sound-of-explosion-in-lebanons-hermel-al-manar.ashx.
January 30, 2014: Syrian state television claims al-Nusra Front fired on UN workers as they delivered food to people in parts of rebel-held Damascus, where thousands were trapped by a Syrian army siege.“U.N. Delivers Food to Residents of Besieged Damascus Suburb,” Reuters, January 30, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/31/us-syria-crisis-un-idUSBREA0T12U20140131.
January 27, 2014: A Saudi-born al-Nusra Front operative blows himself up at a Syrian army checkpoint in the central Hama province, killing 13 people.“Al Qaeda-Linked Rebels Bomb Syrian Defense Minister's Town,” Reuters, January 28, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/28/us-syria-crisis-qaeda-idUSBREA0R0EB20140128.
January 21, 2014: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for a suicide bombing in Beirut that leaves at least four people dead and 34 others wounded.“Nusra Front Lebanon Branch Claims Beirut Bombing,” Daily Star, January 21, 2014, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Jan-21/244798-nusra-front-lebanon-branch-claims-latest-beirut-bombing.ashx.
January 17, 2014: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for launching rocket fire into the Lebanese town of Arsal, killing seven people and wounding 15 others.Remi Bleibel, “Rocket Fired from Syria Kills Seven in Lebanese Border Town,” Reuters, January 17, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/17/us-lebanon-syria-rocket-idUSBREA0G0IX20140117
January 16, 2014: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for a car bomb attack in the Lebanese town of Hermel that leaves four people dead and more than 40 others wounded.“Nusra Branch Says Hermel Blast Response to Hezbollah in Syria,” Daily Star (Beirut), January 17, 2014, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Lebanon-News/2014/Jan-17/244320-nusra-branch-says-hermel-blast-response-to-hezbollah-in-syria.ashx.
December 12-13, 2013: Al-Nusra Front is implicated in an attack that kills at least 15 Syrian civilians from the minority Alawite and Druze sects.“Islamists Kill 15 Alawite and Druze Civilians in Syria –Activists,” Reuters, December 12, 2013, http://in.reuters.com/article/2013/12/12/syria-crisis-adra-idINDEE9BB0AR20131212.
December 11, 2013: Al-Nusra Front and affiliated groups invade Adra Oumaliyah in the Damascus countryside, kidnapping Alawite men, women, and children.Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, “Human rights abuses and international humanitarian law violations in the Syrian Arab Republic, 21 July 2016- 28 February 2017,” U.N. Human Rights Council, March 10, 2017, 17, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/IICISyria/Pages/IndependentInternationalCommission.aspx.
December 10, 2013: Al-Nusra Front executes six members of the Free Syrian Army rebel group for engaging in violent crimes.“Nusra Front Executes Members of FSA for Raping, Killing Activists,” Daily Star, December 10, 2013, http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Dec-11/240642-nusra-front-executes-members-of-fsa-for-raping-killing-activists.ashx.
December 6, 2013: Fighting breaks out between al-Nusra Front and ISIS in the rebel-held city of Raqqa.Alexander Dziadosz and Dasha Afanasieva, “Syrian Islamists Seize Western-Backed Rebel Bases: Monitoring Group,” Reuters, December 7, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/07/us-syria-crisis-fsa-idUSBRE9B607S20131207.
December 2, 2013: After several days of fighting, al-Nusra Front captures the old city of Maaloula and hold several nuns hostage in a monastery, according to SOHR. Thirteen Greek Orthodox nuns are captured by al-Nusra Front and held until March 2014.“Islamists Take Syrian Christian Town, Monastery: State Media,” Reuters, December 2, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/02/us-syria-crisis-maloula-idUSBRE9B10LD20131202;
Marwan Makdesi and Khaled Yacoub Oweis, “Freed Nuns Reach Damascus as Prisoner Exchange Continues,” Reuters, March 10, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/10/syria-crisis-nuns-idUSL6N0M71TK20140310.
November 26, 2013: Al-Nusra Front executes of two government soldiers and three “collaborators,” according to a statement published by the group’s media branch.“Al-Nusra Front Executes Five Soldiers, ‘Collaborators’ in Syria,” Agence France-Presse, November 26, 2013, http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/17711.
November 20, 2013: Four suicide bombers detonate car bombs in northern Damascus. Al-Nusra Front and ISIS take credit for the attacks.“Syria Opposition Forces Launch String of Suicide Attacks,” Al Jazeera America, November 20, 2013, http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/11/20/syria-rebels-launchstringofsuicideattacks.html.
October 17, 2013: Al-Nusra Front executes 10 Syrian government soldiers from the Rashidiyah district, according to SOHR.“UPDATE 1-Jets Bomb Syrian City After Intelligence General Killed,” Reuters, October 18, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/18/syria-crisis-idUSL6N0I826U20131018.
September 10, 2013: Al-Nusra Front militants shoot 16 Alawites and six Arab Bedouins after storming a village in central Syria.“Militant Group Claims Killing of 13 in Syria,” Reuters, June 5, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/12/us-syria-crisis-alawites-idUSBRE98B0F420130912.
August 25, 2013: Al-Nusra Front assassinates the governor of Syria’s Hama province in a car bomb attack.“Syria’s al-Nusra Front Claims Assassination of Hama Governor,” Al Arabiya, September 7, 2013, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/09/07/Syria-s-al-Nusra-Front-claims-assassination-of-Hama-governor.html;
“Syrian State TV: Hama Province Governor Assassinated in Car Bomb Blast,” Al Arabiya, August 25, 2013, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/08/25/syria-car-bomb.html.
July 15, 2013: Al-Nusra Front attacks a Kurdish patrol and takes a gunman hostage, according to SOHR. Clashes between al-Nusra Front and Kurdish fighters erupt in Ras al-Ain, near the border with Turkey.Oliver Holmes and Erika Solomon, “Syria Rebels Reinforce Key Suburb in Damascus Battle,” Reuters, July 16, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/16/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE96F0EK20130716.
June 2, 2013: An al-Nusra Front suicide bomber detonates a car bomb near a police station in Damascus, according to SOHR.Dominic Evans, “Syrian Rebels, Hezbollah in Deadly Fight in Lebanon,” Reuters, June 2, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/02/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE95105O20130602.
June 2013: Al-Nusra Front militants are blamed for wracking the Lebanese coastal city of Sidon in a battle with the Lebanese army.Mitchell Prothero, “Al Qaida-Linked Nusra Front Rebels Blamed for Bloody Fight against Lebanese Army in Sidon,” McClatchy DC, June 25, 2013, https://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/world/article24750418.html.
May 16, 2013: A video released on May 16 shows al-Nusra Front militants executing 11 men for allegedly taking part in massacres on behalf of the Assad regime. The video is believed to have been taken some time in 2012, according to SOHR."Video Shows Islamist Rebels Executing 11 Syrian Soldiers,” Reuters, May 16, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/05/16/us-syria-crisis-executions-idUSBRE94F0AM20130516.
April 22, 2013: Two al-Nusra Front suicide bombers detonate car bombs in the countryside of Damascus, and other operatives launch mortar and rocket attacks, according to a statement released by the group.Bill Roggio, “Al Nusrah Front claims joint operations, including a suicide assault, with Syrian rebel groups,” Long War Journal, June 29, 2013, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/06/al_nusrah_front_clai_14.php#ixzz3MYf2OCrA.
April 12, 2013: Rebel groups, including al-Nusra Front, battle Syrian forces in the city of Qamishli, bordering Iraq.
March 7-23, 2013: Al-Nusra Front and other rebel groups battle against Assad’s forces for control of Syria’s 38th division air defense base. The rebels gain control of the base on March 23.Erika Solomon, “Syria Rebels Seize Southern Base, Border Area,” Reuters, March 23, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/23/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE92M03K20130323.
February 2013: Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for 17 attacks around Damascus in the first half of February, including at least seven bombings.Dominic Evans, “Car Bomb Kills Over 50 Near Damascus Ruling Party Office,” Reuters, February 21, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/21/us-syria-crisis-blast-idUSBRE91K09W20130221.
January 29, 2013: Sixty-five people are found bound and shot dead in Aleppo by Syrian opposition activists, who blame Assad loyalists for the executions. The government blames al-Nusra Front.Sylvia Westall, “UPDATE 5-Donors Meet Target of $1.5 Bln Aid for Stricken Syrians –UN,” Reuters, January 30, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/30/syria-crisis-aid-idUSL5N0AZFBU20130130.
January 24, 2013: A car bomb allegedly planted by al-Nusra Front kills eight members of Syria’s military intelligence.Khaled Yacoub Oweis, “Syrian Troops and Militia Push to Take Sunni Homs Areas,” Reuters, January 25, 2013, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis/syrian-troops-and-militia-push-to-take-sunni-homs-areas-idUSBRE90O0EY20130125.
January 24, 2013: Masked men believed to be affiliated with al-Nusra Front raid the headquarters of two secular civilian organizations in Saraqib.Hania Mourtada and Anne Barnard, “Jihadists and Secular Activists Clash in Syria,” New York Times, January 26, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/27/world/middleeast/syria-war-developments.html.
January 20, 2013: Al-Nusra Front clashes with pro-government forces near the Wadi al-Deif military base.Khaled Yacoub Oweis and Oliver Holmes, “Syrian Opposition Leaders Fail to Form Government,” Reuters, January 21, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/02/syria-crisis-idUSL5E9C21YA20130102.
January 2, 2013: Al-Nusra Front and other rebel groups attack a military airport near Taftanaz, according to pro-opposition monitoring group, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.Oliver Holmes, “Syrian Rebels Attack Military Airport in Northwest,” Reuters, January 2, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/01/02/syria-crisis-idUSL5E9C21YA20130102.
December 31, 2012: Al-Nusra Front operatives capture American photographer Matthew Schrier.C. J. Chivers, “American Tells of Odyssey as Prisoner of Syrian Rebels,” New York Times, August 22, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/23/world/middleeast/american-tells-of-odyssey-as-prisoner-of-syrian-rebels.html?pagewanted=all.
December 21, 2012: A video published by al-Nusra Front shows dead bodies on a highway in Hama province. The speaker on the video says that 50 men, allegedly fighters for the Assad regime, were killed in an ambush.“WRAPUP 3-Syria to Discuss Brahimi Peace Proposals with Russia,” Reuters, December 26, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/26/syria-crisis-idUSL5E8NQ3YS20121226.
December 12, 2012: Explosions outside Syria’s interior ministry leave seven people dead and 50 others wounded, including Syria’s interior minister. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility.“At Least Seven are Killed in Bombings outside Syrian Interior Ministry,” Al Arabiya, December 12, 2012, https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/2012/12/12/At-least-seven-are-killed-in-bombings-outside-Syrian-Interior-Ministry.html;
“Syrian Interior Minister in Beirut Hospital,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, December 20, 2012, http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=3621.
December 12, 2012: Clashes between the Syrian regime and rebel forces, including al-Nusra Front, take place by the Wadi al-Deif military base and the Za’lana checkpoint.“Bombardment and Clashes in Aleppo and Idllib,” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, December 12, 2012, http://syriahr.com/en/2012/12/bombardment_and_clashes_in_Aleppo_and_Idllib/.
December 9, 2012: Al-Nusra Front, leading other rebel groups, violently seizes a government army command center in northern Syria.“Rebels Seize Regiment Command Center in Northern Syria: Activists,” Reuters, December 9, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/09/us-syria-crisis-base-idUSBRE8B805S20121209;
Erika Solomon, “U.S. and Russia Still Back Syria Settlement: UN Envoy,” Reuters, December 9, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/09/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE8AJ1FK20121209.
December 9, 2012: Al-Nusra Front is among armed groups that clash in Tripoli, Lebanon, leaving four dead.Carol Morello, “Sectarian Fighting Related to Syria’s Civil War Kills 4 in Lebanon,” Washington Post, December 9, 2012, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/syrian-sectarian-fighting-spills-into-lebanon/2012/12/09/5a863b98-4220-11e2-8061-253bccfc7532_story.html.
November 29, 2012: Footage of a man shooting 10 unarmed prisoners is uploaded to YouTube. The gunman is heard saying, “God is great. Jabhat al-Nusra,” referring to al-Nusra Front.“UPDATE 1-Syrian Rebel Films Himself Shooting 10 Prisoners,” Reuters, November 30, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/30/syria-crisis-execution-idUSL5E8MUD5920121130
November 5, 2012: An al-Nusra Front suicide bomber detonates a car bomb in Syria’s Hama province, killing at least 50, according to SOHR.“Suicide bomb kills 50 soldiers, Assad gunmen – Observatory,” Reuters, November 5, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/05/syria-crisis-carbomb-idUSL5E8M58WV20121105.
November 1, 2012: Rebels kill 28 soldiers in attacks on three army checkpoints on Syria’s main highway. After storming the checkpoints, soldiers are rounded up and executed, according to video footage of the attack. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) , a pro-opposition monitoring group, claims that al-Nusra Front is responsible for the attacks and executions.Oliver Holmes, “WRAPUP 1-Syrian rebels kill 28 soldiers, several executed,” Reuters, November 1, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/01/syria-crisis-idUSL5E8M1BWH20121101.
November 2012: Over the course of 18 statements on jihadist forums, al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for 45 attacks that reportedly kill dozens, including 60 in a single suicide bombing. Al-Nusra militants clash with Kurds in the border town of Ras al-Ain.Khaled Yacoub Oweis, “Al Qaeda Grows Powerful in Syria as Endgame Nears,” Reuters, December 20, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/20/us-syria-crisis-qaeda-idUSBRE8BJ06B20121220
October 12, 2012: Al-Nusra Front captures a Syrian missile base near Aleppo, killing 92 government soldiers.“Syrian Rebels Capture Government Missile Base, Activists Say,” Los Angeles Times, October 12, 2012, http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/10/syria-rebels-seize-government-missile-defense-base-activists-say.html;
“Militant Group Says was Behind Aleppo Air Defense Base Assault,” Reuters, October 20, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/20/us-syria-crisis-aleppo-idUSBRE89J04720121020.
October 9, 2012: Suicide bombers attack a Syrian intelligence complex outside Damascus. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility.Anne Barnard and Christine Hauser, “Qaeda-Linked Group Claims Responsibility for Syrian Blasts,” New York Times, October 9, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/10/world/middleeast/qaeda-linked-group-says-it-struck-compound-on-edge-of-damascus.html.
October 3, 2012: Three suicide bombers detonate car bombs in Aleppo, killing dozens of people. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility.Nic Robertson and Paul Cruickshank, “Sources: Pro Al Qaeda Group Steps Up Suicide Bombings in Syria,” CNN, October 4, 2012, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/10/04/sources-pro-al-qaeda-group-steps-up-suicide-bombings-in-syria/.
September 26, 2012: A suicide bomber detonates a car bomb near a military command center in Damascus, killing 14 people. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility.“WRAPUP 2-Syria Rebels Say Launch ‘Decisive Battle’ in Aleppo,” Reuters, September 27, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/27/syria-crisis-idUSL5E8KREHA20120927.
August 2012: Al-Nusra Front launches a joint operation with the Sahaba Battalion against a police station in the countryside of Damascus, according to a statement released by the group.Bill Roggio, “Al Nusrah Front claims joint operations, including a suicide assault, with Syrian rebel groups,” Long War Journal, June 29, 2013, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/06/al_nusrah_front_clai_14.php#ixzz3MYf2OCrA.
July 19, 2012: Al-Nusra Front kidnaps, and later kills, Syrian state TV presenter Mohammed al-Saeed, according to a series of statements released by the group on August 3.“Militant Group Claims Kidnap, Killing of Syrian TV Presenter,” Reuters, August 5, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/05/us-syria-crisis-presenter-idUSBRE87404Y20120805.
June 27, 2012: Al-Nusra Front attacks a pro-Syrian government TV building, killing seven.“Militant Group Claims Syrian TV Channel Attack,” Reuters, July 4, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/04/syria-crisis-militant-claim-idUSL6E8I40FX20120704
June 24, 2012: Syrian state TV says that security forces arrested a would-be suicide bomber and member of al-Nusra Front who was planning to detonate a bomb in a mosque the following day.Khaled al-Hariri, “Syrian Town Deserted, Burnt after Clashes,” Reuters, June 24, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/14/us-syria-crisis-idUSBRE85D0IS20120614.
May 29, 2012: Al-Nusra Front captures and kills 13 Syrian security officials, according to a statement released by the group.“Militant Group Claims Killing of 13 in Syria,” Reuters, June 5, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/05/us-syria-crisis-militant-claim-idUSBRE8540LB20120605.
May 2012: Al-Nusra Front carries out twin bombings in Damascus, killing 55.“Militant Group Claim Damascus Army Command Bombing,” Reuters, September 27, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/27/us-syria-crisis-militants-idUSBRE88Q12R20120927.
April 27, 2012: A suicide bomber attacks a mosque in Damascus, killing at least nine people. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility.Ed Cropley, “Nine Dead in Suicide Bomb Near Damascus Mosque,” Reuters, April 27, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/27/us-syria-idUSBRE83O0OL20120427;
Dominic Evans, “Top U.N. Truce Monitor in Syria, Lull in Violence,” Reuters, April 29, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/04/29/us-syria-idUSBRE83S09R20120429.
March 17, 2012: Suicide bombers attack two government facilities in Damascus, killing 27 people and wounding nearly 100.Nick Meo, “Bombings in Damascus Herald Beginnings of a Bloody New Stage of Syrian Insurgency,” Telegraph (London), March 17, 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9150449/Bombings-in-Damascus-herald-beginnings-of-a-bloody-new-stage-of-Syrian-insurgency.html. Al-Nusra Front later claims responsibility.Agence France-Presse,“Islamist Group Claims Syria Bombs ‘to Avenge Sunnis,’” Telegraph (London), March 21, 2012, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9157494/Islamists-claim-Syria-bombs-were-to-avenge-Sunnis.html.
February 10, 2012: Two car bombs explode in Aleppo, killing 28 people. Al-Nusra Front claims responsibility for the attack on February 27.Neil MacFarquhar, “2 Security Complex Car Bombings Kill Dozens, Syria Says,” New York Times, February 10, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/11/world/middleeast/blasts-in-aleppo-syria-homs-violence-said-to-continue.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0;
R. Green, “The Global Jihad Movement Versus the Assad Regime,” MEMRI, March 16, 2012, http://www.memri.org/report/en/print6187.htm.
January 6, 2012: A suicide bomber detonates bus bombs in Damascus, killing 26 people and wounding 63 others. Al-Nusra Front later claims responsibility.Erika Solomon, “Suicide Bomb Kills 26 in Syria: Interior Minister,” Reuters, January 6, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/06/us-syria-idUSTRE8041A820120106;
R. Green, “The Global Jihad Movement Versus the Assad Regime,” MEMRI, March 16, 2012, http://www.memri.org/report/en/print6187.htm.
December 23, 2011: Two car bombs explode outside government security offices in Damascus, killing at least 44 people. Al-Nusra Front later claims responsibility for the attack.Kareem Fahim, “Syria Blames Al Qaeda After Bombs Kill Dozens in Damascus,” New York Times, December 23, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/24/world/middleeast/syria-says-suicide-bombers-attack-in-damascus.html;
Myra MacDonald, “Analysis: Egyptian Crackdown Hands Al Qaeda New Lease on Life,” Reuters, August 19, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/19/us-egypt-protests-qaeda-analysis-idUSBRE97I0I020130819.

Designations by the U.S. Government:

- December 10, 2012: The Department of State designates al-Nusra Front as a Foreign Terrorist Organization (under Executive Order 13224).Department of State, Public Notice, “In the Matter of Amendment of the Designation of al-Qa’ida in Iraq, aka Jam’at al Tawhid wa’al-Jihad, aka The Monotheism and Jihad Group, aka The al-Zarqawi Network, aka al-Tawhid, aka Tanzim Qa‘idat al-Jihad fi Bilad alRafidayn, aka The Organization of alJihad’s Base of Operations in Iraq, aka al-Qaida of Jihad in Iraq, aka al-Qaida in Iraq, aka al-Qaida in Mesopotamia, aka al-Qaida in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka al-Qaida of the Jihad in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka al-Qaida of Jihad Organization in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka al-Qaida Group of Jihad in Iraq, aka al-Qaida Group of Jihad in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization of Jihad’s Base in the Country of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization Base of Jihad/ Country of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization of al-Jihad’s Base in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization Base of Jihad/ Mesopotamia, aka The Organization of al-Jihad’s Base of Operations in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka Tanzeem qa’idat al Jihad/Bildad al Raafidaini, as a Foreign Terrorist Organization pursuant to Section 219 of the Immigration and Nationality Act; To include the aliases Al-Nusrah Front, Jabhat al-Nusrah, Jabhet al-Nusra, The Victory Front, Al Nusrah Front for the People of the Levant, Public Notice 8104,” Federal Register 77, no. 238 (December 11, 2012): 73732, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-12-11/pdf/2012-29870.pdf; Department of State, Public Notice, “In the Matter of the Amendment of the Designation of al-Qa’ida in Iraq, aka Jam’at al Tawhid wa’al-Jihad, aka The Monotheism and Jihad Group, aka The al-Zarqawi Network, aka al-Tawhid, aka Tanzim Qa‘idat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn, aka The Organization of al-Jihad’s Base of Operations in Iraq, aka al-Qaida of Jihad in Iraq, aka al-Qaida in Iraq, aka al-Qaida in Mesopotamia, aka al-Qaida in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka al-Qaida of the Jihad in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka al-Qaida of Jihad Organization in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka al-Qaida Group of Jihad in Iraq, aka al-Qaida Group of Jihad in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization of Jihad’s Base in the Country of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization Base of Jihad/Country of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization of al-Jihad’s Base in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka The Organization Base of Jihad/Mesopotamia, aka The Organization of al-Jihad’s Base of Operations in the Land of the Two Rivers, aka Tanzeem qa’idat al Jihad/Bildad al Raafidaini, as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist entity pursuant to Executive Order 13224; To include the aliases Al-Nusrah Front, Jabhat al-Nusrah, Jabhet al-Nusra, The Victory Front, Al-Nusrah Front for the People of the Levant, Public Notice 8105,” Federal Register 77, no. 238 (December 11, 2012): 73732, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-12-11/pdf/2012-29870.pdf.
- May 14, 2014: The Department of the Treasury designates al-Nusra Front as a Specially Designated National.“Kingpin Act Designations and Updates; Counter Terrorism Designations and Updates; Kingpin Act Designations Removals – Special Designated Nationals Update,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control, May 15, 2014, http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/OFAC-Enforcement/Pages/20140514.aspx.
- May 31, 2018: The Department of State amends its listing of al-Nusra Front to include Hayat Tahrir al-Sham as an alias.“Amendments to the Terrorist Designations of al-Nusrah Front,” U.S. Department of State, May 31, 2018, https://www.state.gov/amendments-to-the-terrorist-designations-of-al-nusrah-front/.

Designations by Foreign Governments and Organizations:

European Union—listed al-Nusra Front as a sanctioned group of persons, groups, and entities on May 28, 2014.“Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) No 583/2014 of 28 May 2014,” Official Journal of the European Union, May 29, 2014, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32014R0583&rid=2.
Australia—listed al-Nusra Front as a Foreign Terrorist Organization on June 23, 2013.“Jabhat al-Nusra,” Australian National Security, accessed on January 29, 2015, http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/Jabhatal-Nusra.aspx.
Canada—listed al-Nusra Front as a terrorist entity on November 7, 2013.“Currently Listed Entities,” Public Safety Canada, accessed December 21, 2014, http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cntr-trrrsm/lstd-ntts/crrnt-lstd-ntts-eng.aspx#2049.
France—listed al-Nusra Front as a terrorist entity on May 30, 2013.“Liste Terroriste Unique au 23 Décembre 2014,” Trésor Direction Générale, accessed on December 25, 2014, http://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/File/409144.
New Zealand—listed al-Nusra Front as an organization associated with Al-Qaeda on May 15, 2013.“Designated Individuals and Organisations,” New Zealand Policy, November 26, 2014, http://www.police.govt.nz/sites/default/files/publications/designated-entities-26-11-2014.pdf.
Russia—listed al-Nusra Front as a terrorist group on December 29, 2014.“Supreme Court bans Islamic State and Jabhat al-Nusra in Russia as terrorist organizations,” Tass Russian News Agency, December 29, 2014, http://itar-tass.com/en/russia/769731.
Saudi Arabia—listed al-Nusra Front as a terrorist group on March 7, 2014.“Saudi Arabia Designates Muslim Brotherhood Terrorist Group,” Reuters, March 7, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/07/us-saudi-security-idUSBREA260SM20140307.
Turkey—listed al-Nusra Front as a terrorist organization on June 13, 2014.“Turkey lists al-Nusra Front as terrorist organization,” Hurriyet Daily News, June 3, 2014, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-lists-al-nusra-front-as-terrorist-organization.aspx?pageID=238&nID=67322&NewsCatID=359.
The United Arab Emirates—listed al-Nusra Front as a terrorist organization on November 15, 2014.“UAE Cabinet Approves List of Designated Terrorist Organisations, Groups,” Emirates News Agency, November 16, 2014, http://wam.ae/en/details/1395272478814.
United Nations—listed al-Nusra Front as an entity associated with Al-Qaeda on May 30, 2013.“Security Council Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee Amends Entry of One Entity on Its Sanctions List,” United Nations Security Council, May 30, 2013, http://www.un.org/press/en/2013/sc11019.doc.htm.
The United Kingdom—listed al-Nusra Front as a foreign terrorist group on July 19, 2013.Associated Press, “Britain Bans Syria’s al-Qaida-Linked Nusra Front on Terrorism Grounds,” Fox News, July 19, 2013, https://www.foxnews.com/world/britain-bans-syrias-al-qaida-linked-nusra-front-on-terrorism-grounds; “Proscribed Terrorist Organisations,” Britain’s Home Office, last modified January 23, 2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/380939/ProscribedOrganisations.pdf.

Ties to Extremist Entities:

Al-Qaeda
Al-Nusra Front has a long and proven history of serving as al-Qaeda’s loyal affiliate in Syria. In July 2016, however, al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri released an audio statement giving al-Nusra Front formal permission to break ties with al-Qaeda if the link was “conflicting with [al-Nusra Front’s] unity and working as one body.”“Al Qaeda tells Syrian branch Nusra Front it can drop links,” Reuters, July 28, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-nusra-front/al-qaeda-tells-syrian-branch-nusra-front-it-can-drop-links-idUSKCN10819R. Hours later, al-Nusra Front leader Abu Muhammad al-Golani formally severed ties with al-Qaeda’s central command.Dania Akkad, “Nusra confirms split with al-Qaeda ‘to protect the Syrian revolution,’” Middle East Eye, July 28, 2016, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/nusra-front-announces-official-split-al-qaeda-520293064. Analysts have long surmised that a formal, or at least artificial, break from al-Qaeda could allow al-Nusra Front the opportunity to attract more funding from Gulf states, consolidate local support, and present itself as a legitimate insurgent group in Syria.Bassem Mroue, “AP EXPLAINS: Why Syria’s al-Qaida may be considering a split,” Associated Press, July 27, 2016, https://apnews.com/d10d759d35824b70b47501d85f0ff8c3; Reuters, “Al Qaeda tells Syrian branch Nusra Front it can drop links,” Reuters, July 28, 2016, http://news.trust.org/item/20160728110801-ogl17. Even as al-Nusra Front formally declared its independence from al-Qaeda, the group thanked al-Qaeda’s leadership for giving “priority to the interests of the people of Al-Sham, their Jihad, [and] their revolution.”“Nusra Front, Abu Mohammed Joulani commander officially announced the disengagement from al-Qaeda and the establishment of a new entity,” YouTube video, postd by “Orient News,” July 28, 2016, (video no longer available) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oossAtDYbrs.

Yet recent insights have brought into question the artificiality of al-Nusra Front’s break from al-Qaeda. According to al-Qaeda scholar Cole Bunzel, there has been a “profound controversy in jihadi circles surrounding the nature of [HTS], which some argue has lost its way.”Cole Bunzel, “Diluting Jihad: Tahrir al-Sham and the Concerns of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi,” Jihadica, March 29, 2017, http://www.jihadica.com/diluting-jihad/. Among the many critics of HTS is al-Qaeda propagandist Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi. In November 2016, Maqdisi withdrew his support for al-Nusra Front’s break from al-Qaeda, stating that his and Zawahiri’s approval came only on the condition that any such break would be a “superficial step.”Cole Bunzel, “Diluting Jihad: Tahrir al-Sham and the Concerns of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi,” Jihadica, March 29, 2017, http://www.jihadica.com/diluting-jihad/. Instead, Maqdisi claimed that al-Nusra Front’s leadership continued to deviate from al-Qaeda’s central tenets, stating that they “stayed the course till they made it a real breaking of ties” from al-Qaeda.Cole Bunzel, “Diluting Jihad: Tahrir al-Sham and the Concerns of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi,” Jihadica, March 29, 2017, http://www.jihadica.com/diluting-jihad/. Maqdisi and other al-Qaeda hardliners have denounced HTS’s outreach to secular and moderate Islamist rebel factions.Cole Bunzel, “Diluting Jihad: Tahrir al-Sham and the Concerns of Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi,” Jihadica, March 29, 2017, http://www.jihadica.com/diluting-jihad/;
Cole Bunzel, “Abandoning al-Qaida: Tahrir al-Sham and the Concerns of Sami al-‘Uraydi,” Jihadica, May 12, 2017, http://www.jihadica.com/abandoning-al-qaida/.

For years before the announcement, however, al-Nusra Front had reaffirmed its allegiance to Zawahiri, even in the face of competing claims to its leadership. In April 2013, after Baghdadi unilaterally claimed that al-Nusra Front answered to his al-Qaeda in Iraq group (now ISIS), Golani broke ties with ISIS and affirmed its allegiance to al-Qaeda central.“Syria Crisis: Al-Nusra Pledges Allegiance to Al-Qaeda,” BBC News, April 10, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22095099.
ISIS
Al-Nusra Front was allegedly formed as an extension of al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI, now ISIS), and received a monthly salary from AQI leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda in Iraq, Al Nusrah Front Emerge as Rebranded Single Entity,” Long War Journal, April 9, 2013, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/04/the_emir_of_al_qaeda.php#ixzz3Mw15S2jb. The relationship between the groups deteriorated in April 2013, when Baghdadi unilaterally announced a merger between the two groups.“Syria Crisis: Al-Nusra Pledges Allegiance to Al-Qaeda,” BBC News, April 10, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-22095099. The two have since engaged in violent clashes, vying for control over rebel-held territory.
Hurras al-Din
Hurras al-Din’s (HaD) core leadership and fighters are comprised of defectors from the former Syrian al-Qaeda affiliate al-Nusra Front, now known as Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS).The Best of Bad Options for Syria’s Idlib, International Crisis Group, March 14, 2019, https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/197-the-best-of-bad-options%20.pdf. The two groups have a contentious relationship, often hurling accusations at one another while also cooperating on the battlefield. According to interviews carried out by Syria expert Aymenn al-Tamimi, HaD’s disputes with HTS are largely at the leadership level and center on HTS’s disavowal of al-Qaeda and HaD’s loyalty to al-Qaeda.Aymenn al-Tamimi, “Hurras al-Din: Interview,” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi’s blog, July 11, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/07/hurras-al-din-interview.

On November 27, 2017, Nusra Front leader Abu Mohammad al-Golani ordered the arrests of Sami al-Oraidi, the former head of the group’s Sharia Council; Abu Julaibib al-Urduni, former Nusra Dara’a commander; Iyad Nazmi Salih Khalil, former Jabhat Fateh al-Sham commander; Abu Khadija al-Urduni; and Abu Mussaab al-Libi. All four were prominent Nusra leaders with strong ties to al-Qaeda.Mona Alami, “HTS Continues to Evolve,” Syria Source, December 1, 2017, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/syriasource/hts-continues-to-evolve. Following these arrests, several members of HTS resigned, and several large factions threatened to break away, prompting Golani to renew negotiations with al-Qaeda that ultimately led nowhere.“Weekly Conflict Summary, November 30–December 6, 2017,” Carter Center, December 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.30-12.05.pdf. On December 4, 2017, HTS released Urduni in a bid to ease tensions within the group. Urduni immediately renewed his pledge to al-Qaeda upon release.“Weekly Conflict Summary, November 30–December 6, 2017,” Carter Center, December 6, 2017, https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/peace/conflict_resolution/syria-conflict/weekly-conflict-summary-2017.11.30-12.05.pdf.

Subsequently, several subgroups of devoted al-Qaeda supporters defected from HTS. On December 5, 2017, HTS faction Jaish al-Badia defected, creating a new Telegram channel devoted to al-Qaeda. Jaish al-Malahem followed three weeks later, also indicating support for al-Qaeda in its new Telegram channel, while on February 7, 2018, a new al-Qaeda-supporting group, Jund al Shariah, announced its formation. On February 28, 2018, these three groups, along with three other small militant factions, announced a merger under the name Hurras al-Din, or Guardians of the Religion, and declared themselves an unofficial affiliate of al-Qaeda. Oraidi and Urduni both joined HaD’s Shura council and reportedly begun talks with al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri to make HaD the official al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria. HaD remains at odds with HTS.Tore Refslund Hamming and Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “The True Story of al-Qaeda’s Demise and Resurgence in Syria,” Lawfare, April 8, 2018, https://lawfareblog.com/true-story-al-qaedas-demise-and-resurgence-syria.

Despite this severe ideological divide, the two groups formed a joint operations room in October 2018.Aaron Y. Zelin, “Huras al-Din: The Overlooked al-Qaeda Group in Syria,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, September 24, 2019, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/huras-al-din-the-overlooked-al-qaeda-group-in-syria; “Military Groups Calling Themselves ‘the Finest Factions of the Levant’ Form Joint Operations Room,” Syria Call, October 15, 2018, http://nedaa-sy.com/en/news/9078. HTS and HaD militants use this room to conduct offensive and defensive military actions against Syrian regime forces in Latakia, Idlib, Hama, and Aleppo.Aymenn al-Tamimi, “Hurras al-Din: Interview,” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi’s blog, July 11, 2019, http://www.aymennjawad.org/2019/07/hurras-al-din-interview; Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda-Linked Operations Room Continues to Attack Assad Regime,” Long War Journal, November 19, 2018, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2018/11/al-qaeda-linked-operations-room-continues-to-attack-assad-regime.php.

Qatar and the Nusra Front

Qatar stands accused of supporting and funding the Nusra Front.Jay Solomon, “U.S.-Qatar Alliance Strains Coalition... Read More

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights on the Nusra Front

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) is a pro-opposition monitoring group. A score of mainstream Western and... Read More

The Nusra Front Pledges Allegiance to Al-Qaeda

On April 10, 2013, Nusra Front leader Abu Mohammed al-Golani released a statement rejecting Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi’s claim... Read More

Responses to U.S. Designation of the Nusra Front

On December 10, 2012, the U.S. listed the Nusra Front as an alias for al-Qaeda in Iraq (now ISIS). The designation was... Read More

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, May 17, 2021

“HTS is in the stage of preparing and building institutions in preparation for a major war. At the same time we are advancing toward Damascus, because the Syrian regime is collapsing in light of the deteriorating economic situation, in addition to losing all its support. Even the Russians could not protect the regime.”Mohammed Hardan, “HTS finesses tribes in Syria’s Idlib,” Al-Monitor, May 26, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/05/hts-finesses-tribes-syrias-idlib.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, January 14, 2019

“We consider the PKK to be an enemy of this revolution. It controls areas inhabited by large numbers of Sunni Arabs…We are in favor of this region being liberated from the PKK ... We would not stand in the way of an operation against an enemy of the revolution.”“PKK is ‘enemy’ of Syria revolution, says jihadist leader,” Rudaw, January 14, 2019, http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/140120195.

Abu al-Fatah al-Farghali, January 15, 2019

“HTS can’t strive to obstruct the liberation of Sunni Muslims [east of the Euphrates] from the rule of the atheists [YPG/SDF] even if that is at hands of the secularists [Turkey] less far from the religion.”Aymenn J Al-Tamimi, Twitter Post, January 15, 2019, 12:14 p.m., https://twitter.com/ajaltamimi/status/1085223662213648390.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, August 22, 2018

“The weapons of the revolution and jihad... are a red line on which concessions are unacceptable, and they will never be put on the negotiations table…We urge our people in Aleppo to remain steadfast. The mujahideen will not fail you.”Alex Macdonald, “Syrian militant leader slams Turkey and defends evacuations in new video,” Middle East Eye, August 22, 2018, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-hayat-tahrir-sham-leader-slams-turkey-and-defends-evacuations-new-video-91127761.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, August 2018

“The red line [ceasefire deal between Turkey and Russia] is never negotiable and will never be put on the negotiating table.”Sam Heller, Twitter Post, September 19, 2018, 2:53 a.m., https://twitter.com/AbuJamajem/status/1042305558156591104.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, January 2018

“[We must engage in] a war of ideas, a war of minds, a war of wills, a war of perseverance.”Sune Engel Rasmussen, “As Islamic State Fades in Syria, Another Militant Group Takes Root,” Wall Street Journal, April 18, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/as-islamic-state-fades-in-syria-another-militant-group-takes-root-1524064045.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, July 28, 2016

“This new organization [al-Nusra Front, renamed the Levantine Conquest Front] aims to fulfill the following: 1. Work toward establishing the religion of Allah (swt), having his shariah (law) as legislation…”Orient News, “Nusra Front, Abu Mohammed Joulani commander officially announced the disengagement from al-Qaeda and the establishment of a new entity,” YouTube video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oossAtDYbrs; Dania Akkad, “Nusra confirms split with al-Qaeda ‘to protect the Syrian revolution,’” Middle East Eye, July 28, 2016, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/nusra-front-announces-official-split-al-qaeda-520293064.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, July 28, 2016

“[We will continue] fulfilling the requests of the people of Al Sham to expose the deceptions of the International community, the leaders being the U.S. and Russia…”“Nusra Front, Abu Mohammed Joulani Commander Officially Announced the Disengagement from al-Qaeda and the Establishment of a New Entity,” YouTube video, posted by “Orient News,” July 28, 2016, (video no longer available) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oo.

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, July 28, 2016

“[In formally splitting from al-Qaeda, we are not] compromising or sacrificing our solid beliefs or laxity in the necessity of the continuity of the Jihad of Al-Sham.”“Nusra Front, Abu Mohammed Joulani Commander Officially Announced the Disengagement from al-Qaeda and the Establishment of a New Entity,” YouTube video, posted by “Orient News,” July 28, 2016, (video no longer available) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oo.

Al-Nusra Front (Hayat Tahrir al-Sham)

Overview

Executive Summary:

Doctrine:

Organizational Structure:

Financing:

Recruitment:

Training:

Also Known As:

Key Leaders

Abu Muhammad al-Golani

Anas Hassan Khattab

Abu ‘Abdallah al-Shami'

Abu Marieh Qahtani

Abu Jaber al-Shami

Mostafa Mahamed a.k.a. Abu Sulayman

Sheikh Bashar al-Shami

Abu al-Fatah al-Farghali

Murhef Abu Qasra

Assad Al Shibani

History

Violent Activities

Designations by the U.S. Government:

Designations by Foreign Governments and Organizations:

Ties to Extremist Entities:

Qatar and the Nusra Front

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights on the Nusra Front

The Nusra Front Pledges Allegiance to Al-Qaeda

Responses to U.S. Designation of the Nusra Front

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, May 17, 2021

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, January 14, 2019

Abu al-Fatah al-Farghali, January 15, 2019

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, August 22, 2018

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, August 2018

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, January 2018

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, July 28, 2016

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, July 28, 2016

Abu Muhammad al-Golani, July 28, 2016

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