Weakened by a French military intervention in 2013 in Mali, Ag Ghaly bounced back in 2017 by uniting the Ansar Dine, Katiba Macina and Al-Mourabitoun groups to form JNIM.

His nickname is "the strategist", said Hans-Jakob Schindler, director of the think tank Counter-Extremism Project (CEP). A highly experienced organiser, his long contacts with Al-Qaeda and the "successes" of the JNIM have made him a respected emir, Schindler added.