Khaled Meshaal is the former chief of Hamas’s political bureau and current leader of Hamas’s diaspora office.Nidal Al-mughrabi, “Hamas elects former chief Meshaal to head diaspora office,” Reuters, April 12, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-elects-former-chief-meshaal-head-diaspora-office-2021-04-12/; Aaron Boxerman, “Khaled Mashaal tapped as Hamas’s diaspora director,” Times of Israel, April 12, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/khaled-mashaal-tapped-as-hamass-international-director/. He stepped down after two terms as Hamas’s political chief following the May 6, 2017, election of deputy Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh as his successor.“Ismail Haniyeh elected new political head of Hamas,” Times of Israel, May 6, 2017, http://www.timesofisrael.com/ismail-haniyeh-elected-new-head-of-hamas/?utm_source=The+Times+of+Israel+Daily+Edition&utm_campaign=0dd24464cd-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2017_05_05&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_adb46cec92-0dd24464cd-55118405. Meshaal assumed leadership of the political bureau in 2004 following the assassinations of Hamas founder Ahmed Yassin and his successor, Abdel Aziz Rantisi. During his 13 years of leadership, Meshaal oversaw Hamas’s transition from a purely terrorist organization into a terrorist/political hybrid.“Khaled Meshaal Fast Facts,” CNN, October 9, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/09/world/meast/khaled-meshaal-fast-facts/index.html. In April 2021, Meshaal was elected to lead Hamas’s diaspora office and named second-in-command of the terror group.Nidal Al-mughrabi, “Hamas elects former chief Meshaal to head diaspora office,” Reuters, April 12, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-elects-former-chief-meshaal-head-diaspora-office-2021-04-12/; Aaron Boxerman, “Khaled Mashaal tapped as Hamas’s diaspora director,” Times of Israel, April 12, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/khaled-mashaal-tapped-as-hamass-international-director/.

Despite Hamas’s control of Gaza, Meshaal has never lived there. He resides in Qatar, from where he acted as the public face of Hamas for more than a decade. Reports in January 2015 speculated that Qatar would expel Meshaal and other Hamas leaders as part of a plan to align with its regional allies in the fight against terrorism.“Report: Qatar to banish Hamas’ Meshaal, who will relocate to Turkey,” Jerusalem Post, January 6, 2015, http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Report-Qatar-to-banish-Hamas-political-bureau-chief-Mashaal-who-will-relocate-to-Turkey-386808. Qatar denied the reports and Qatar’s top diplomat called Meshaal a “dear guest” in his country.Abdullah Rebhy, “Qatar denies it plans to expel Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal,” Associated Press, January 12, 2015, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/04fc2928f3e04a77a1fdd45c24085397/qatar-denies-it-plans-expel-hamas-leader-khaled-mashaal.

Reports emerged in March 2016 that Meshaal was struggling to maintain power. According to Israeli analysts, Meshaal faced a challenge to his authority from Yahya Sinwar, a co-founder of Hamas’s Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades who had reportedly orchestrated power shifts within the Gaza-based Hamas leadership. Sinwar has advocated closer ties with Iran, which has continued funding the al-Qassam Brigades while cutting funding to Hamas as a whole. Meshaal, however, tried to align the organization with Saudi Arabia and Egypt.Avi Issacharoff, “Inside Hamas, a bitter and very personal battle for control,” Times of Israel, March 19, 2016, http://www.timesofisrael.com/inside-hamas-a-bitter-and-very-personal-battle-for-control/;
Avi Issacharoff, “Rising new Hamas leader is all too familiar to Israel,” Times of Israel, December 18, 2015, http://www.timesofisrael.com/rising-new-hamas-leader-is-all-too-familiar-to-israel/.

On May 6, 2017, Hamas’s Shura Council elected Haniyeh to succeed Meshaal.“Ismail Haniyeh elected new political head of Hamas,” Times of Israel, May 6, 2017, http://www.timesofisrael.com/ismail-haniyeh-elected-new-head-of-hamas/?utm_source=The+Times+of+Israel+Daily+Edition&utm_campaign=0dd24464cd-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2017_05_05&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_adb46cec92-0dd24464cd-55118405. As one of his last acts in office, Meshaal announced Hamas’s new political program at the Sheraton Hotel in Doha on May 1, 2017. Meshaal introduced the new political document as an updated guide to Hamas’s policies, though it did not replace the group’s 1988 charter. While the document accepts the idea of a Palestinian state along the pre-1967 lines, Hamas withholds recognition of Israel and continues to embrace “armed resistance” against Israel in its pursuit of the “liberation” of Palestine “from the river to the sea.”“A Document of General Principles & Policies,” Hamas Media Office, accessed May 2, 2017, http://hamas.ps/ar/uploads/documents/06c77206ce934064ab5a901fa8bfef44.pdf;
“New Hamas policy document ‘aims to soften image,’” BBC News, May 1, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39744551.

In his farewell address, Meshaal said that Haniyeh and Hamas’s political bureau would continue to focus on the “key” issues of “liberation, Jerusalem, prisoners, right of refugees, lifting the siege imposed on Gaza, and achieving internal unity.”“Khalid Meshal's speech during the inauguration of the new head of Hamas political bureau, Ismail Haniya ( an excerpt),” Hamas website, May 6, 2017, http://hamas.ps/en/post/694/khalid-meshal-s-speech-during-the-inauguration-of-the-new-head-of-hamas-political-bureau-ismail-haniya-(-an-excerpt).

In March 2021, Hamas began holding secretive internal elections. Meshaal mounted a challenge to Haniyeh for leadership of Hamas’s political bureau. On April 12, Hamas elected Meshaal to lead its office in the diaspora and named second-in-command of Hamas. Haniyeh remained Hamas’s overall leader. Meshaal remains based in Qatar.Nidal Al-mughrabi, “Hamas elects former chief Meshaal to head diaspora office,” Reuters, April 12, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-elects-former-chief-meshaal-head-diaspora-office-2021-04-12/; Aaron Boxerman, “Khaled Mashaal tapped as Hamas’s diaspora director,” Times of Israel, April 12, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/khaled-mashaal-tapped-as-hamass-international-director/.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a mass attack on Israel, sending hundreds of fighters into Israeli towns and military bases within 15 miles of the Gaza border while simultaneously launching a rocket barrage toward Israel.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2. Hamas labeled the attack Operation Al-Aqsa Flood.“Operation Al Aqsa Flood,” Hamas Online Telegram channel, October 7, 2023. Hamas killed more than 1,400 Israelis and took hostage approximately 240 Israeli civilians and soldiers in Gaza.Peter Saidel and Dov Lieber, “Hamas Took More Than 200 Hostages From Israel. Here’s What to Know.,” Wall Street Journal, November 6, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/hamas-hostages-israel-gaza-41432124. Since the attack, Meshaal has been vocal in international media defending Hamas and calling for the Muslim world to join Hamas in its fight against Israel. On October 11, Meshaal called for a Muslim uprising across the world against Israel on October 13, particularly in countries bordering Israel. He called on Muslims and all those who teach jihad to turn theory into violent practice.“Former Hamas chief calls for protests, neighbours to join war against Israel,” Reuters, October 11, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/former-hamas-chief-calls-protests-neighbours-join-war-against-israel-2023-10-11/. Speaking to the Saudi-based Al-Arabiya news network on October 19, Meshaal called the October 7 attack a calculated move by Hamas, which understood the consequences. He revealed Hamas was holding hostage multiple Israeli soldiers in Gaza. He also denied that Hamas intentionally targeted civilians and accused the West of creating false equivalencies between Hamas and ISIS.“Exclusive: ‘Israel will kill us, whether we resist or not,’ says former Hamas chief,” Al Arabiya, last updated October 21, 2023, https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2023/10/19/-Israel-is-killing-us-whether-we-resist-or-not-says-former-Hamas-chief. Contradicting Meshaal’s claims, written orders recovered from the bodies of dead Hamas fighters as well as video testimonials of Hamas attackers showed that Hamas fighters had been directed to kill as many people as possible.Dov Lieber and David S. Cloud, “Hamas Fighters’ Orders: ‘Kill as Many People as Possible,’” Wall Street Journal, October 14, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/hamas-fighters-orders-kill-as-many-people-as-possible-2a6abff8.

Mahmoud Ezzat is the former acting supreme guide of the Muslim Brotherhood, currently imprisoned in Egypt.“Egypt: Wanted Brotherhood leader Mahmoud Ezzat arrested,” Gulf News, August 28, 2020, https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/egypt-wanted-brotherhood-leader-mahmoud-ezzat-arrested-1.73483156. A doctor by training,Eric Trager, Katie Kiraly, Cooper Klose, and Eliot Calhoun, “Who’s Who in Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” Washington Institute for Near East Policy, September 2012, http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/whos-who-in-the-muslim-brotherhood. Ezzat has been a member of the Brotherhood since his teenage years, and has served numerous jail terms for his opposition to the Egyptian government.Ahmed Raheem, “New Brotherhood supreme guide linked to “radical Qutb current,” Al-Monitor, August 21, 2013, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/politics/2013/08/egypt-brotherhood-new-interim-supreme-guide.html#. In November 2015, Ezzat reportedly flew out of Egypt despite warrants issued for his arrest two years prior.“Brotherhood official on wanted list leaves Egypt,” Middle East Monitor, November 19, 2015, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/africa/22366-brotherhood-official-on-wanted-list-leaves-egypt. He was allegedly operating out of Turkey,Eric Trager and Marina Shalabi, “The Brotherhood Breaks Down,” Foreign Affairs, January 17, 2016, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2016-01-17/brotherhood-breaks-down. but Egyptian police arrested Ezzat in Cairo on August 28, 2020.“Egypt: Wanted Brotherhood leader Mahmoud Ezzat arrested,” Gulf News, August 28, 2020, https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/egypt-wanted-brotherhood-leader-mahmoud-ezzat-arrested-1.73483156. Ezzat was sentenced to life in prison on April 8, 2021, for inciting violence after the July 2013 ouster of President Mohammed Morsi.“Egypt: Muslim Brotherhood leader gets life sentence on terrorism charges,” Deutsche Welle, April 4, 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-leader-gets-life-sentence-on-terrorism-charges/a-57139394.

Prior to Ezzat’s appointment to supreme guide, he served as the secretary-general of the Brotherhood and as a member of the Guidance Office.“Mahmoud Ezzat named Muslim Brotherhood’s new leader,” Al Arabiya, August 20, 2013, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2013/08/21/Mahmoud-Ezzat-named-Muslim-Brotherhood-s-new-leader.html. Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram has described him as a “hardliner,” and Sa’d al-Din Ibrahim, an America-Egyptian professor and academic, has called Ezzat a “big enigma” and the Brotherhood’s “most dangerous man.”“Who’s who in Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” BBC News, last modified April 28, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-23726995. Ezzat is characterized in Egyptian media as an “iron man” who stresses top-down decision-making.Eric Trager, Katie Kiraly, Cooper Klose, and Eliot Calhoun, “Who’s Who in Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” The Washington Institute, September 2012, http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/whos-who-in-the-muslim-brotherhood. As supreme guide, he is suspected to oversee the Brotherhood’s finances.“Who’s who in Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood,” BBC News, last modified April 28, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-23726995. In a January 2018 interview with Egyptian newspaper Sawt al-Ummah, former Brotherhood leader Tariq al-Bashbishi claimed that Egypt-based Brotherhood members oppose Ezzat, who continues to completely control what remains of the Brotherhood organization and its resources.“Former Leader of the Brotherhood: This is Mahmoud Ezzat’s Relationship with the East Channel Crisis,” Sawt al-Ummah (Cairo), January 18, 2018, http://www.soutalomma.com/Article/747308/%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A-%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%82-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%87%D8%B0%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9-%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D8%B2%D8%AA-%D8%A8%D8%A3%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%82.

In August 2017, a Cairo criminal court accused Ezzat of planning attacks within Egypt from abroad and added his name to the country’s national terror list.“Two leading Brotherhood figures among 296 names added to Egypt’s terror list,” Ahram Online, August 30, 2017, http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/276301/Egypt/Politics-/Two-leading-Brotherhood-figures-among--names-added.aspx. Among the attacks Ezzat is accused of coordinating is the 2015 assassination of Egyptian prosecutor Hisham Barakat, allegedly by members of Hamas alongside the Brotherhood. Ezzat is also accused of involvement in the deaths of Brigadier General Wael Tahoun in 2015 and Major General Adel Rajai in 2016.Clyde Hughes, “Egypt arrests Muslim Brotherhood leader Mahmoud Ezzat,” United Press International, August 28, 2020, https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2020/08/28/Egypt-arrests-Muslim-Brotherhood-leader-Mahmoud-Ezzat/7761598624135/; “Police arrest acting leader of Muslim Brotherhood terrorist group in Cairo,” Egypt Independent (Cairo), August 28, 2020, https://www.egyptindependent.com/police-arrest-acting-leader-of-muslim-brotherhood-terrorist-group-in-cairo/. Ezzat has twice been sentenced in absentia to death and to life in prison on espionage charges.“Egypt arrests Muslim Brotherhood leader in Cairo,” Al Monitor, August 28, 2020, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/08/egypt-mahmoud-ezzat-muslim-brotherhood-leader-arrest-cairo.html.

Egyptian police arrested Ezzat on August 28, 2020, in an apartment in the Cairo suburb of Al Tajammu. Police also seized laptops and cellphones Ezzat allegedly used to communicate with the Brotherhood’s international leadership and membership.“Egypt: Wanted Brotherhood leader Mahmoud Ezzat arrested,” Gulf News, August 28, 2020, https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/egypt-wanted-brotherhood-leader-mahmoud-ezzat-arrested-1.73483156. A statement by the Brotherhood dismissed the arrest as “false political charges.”“Acting leader of Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood arrested in Cairo,” Reuters, August 28, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-politics/acting-leader-of-egypts-muslim-brotherhood-arrested-in-cairo-idUSKBN25O1C3. In September 2020, the Brotherhood named Ibrahim Mounir as its new acting general guide and reorganized its leadership structure.“Egypt: Wanted Brotherhood leader Mahmoud Ezzat arrested,” Gulf News, August 28, 2020, https://gulfnews.com/world/mena/egypt-wanted-brotherhood-leader-mahmoud-ezzat-arrested-1.73483156; “Muslim Brotherhood Statement on the Arrest of Acting Chairman Dr. Mahmoud Ezzat,” Ikhwanweb, September 3, 2020, https://www.ikhwanweb.com/article.php?id=32966. On April 8, 2021, an Egyptian court found Ezzat guilty of inciting violence and supplying firearms to protesters in 2013. Ezzat was sentenced to life in prison.“Egypt: Muslim Brotherhood leader gets life sentence on terrorism charges,” Deutsche Welle, April 4, 2021, https://www.dw.com/en/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-leader-gets-life-sentence-on-terrorism-charges/a-57139394; “Court sentences acting Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison,” Reuters, April 8, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN2BV1SE. On April 17, 2022, Ezzat received another life sentence in relation to a case referred to as “storming Egypt’s eastern border.”“Egypt sentences Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison,” Middle East Monitor, April 18, 2022, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220418-egypt-sentences-muslim-brotherhood-leader-to-life-in-prison/. On May 29, 2022, Ezzat was sentenced to 15 years in prison for disseminating false news and inciting against state institutions. Ezzat was sentenced alongside Islamist leader Abdel-Monaem Abul Fetouh, who also received a 15-year sentence. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International claimed Fetouh and Ezzat’s trial was part of a government crackdown on dissent that targeted Islamist political opponents as well as pro-democracy activists, journalists, and online critics.“Egypt court sentences 2 aged Islamist leaders to 15 years,” Associated Press, May 29, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/politics-africa-religion-egypt-cairo-0c147cda28708d3a69214eaa2a128ff1. Ezzat has alleged mistreat in Egyptian prison, including more than a year of solitary confinement. According to a December 2021 leaked video from Ezzat’s trial, he alleged his cell opens briefly only for delivery of food.“‘I don’t breath fresh air,’ Mahmoud Ezzat reveals prison violations,” Middle East Monitor, December 25, 2021, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20211225-i-dont-breath-fresh-air-mahmoud-ezzat-reveals-prison-violations/. Mounir died on November 4, 2022.“Deputy supreme guide of Muslim Brotherhood dies in London,” Middle East Monitor, November 4, 2022, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20221104-deputy-supreme-guide-of-muslim-brotherhood-dies-in-london/; “Acting leader of Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood dies at 85 – statement,” Reuters, November 4, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/acting-leader-egypts-muslim-brotherhood-dies-85-statement-2022-11-04/. Later that month, the Brotherhood announced Mahmoud Hussein as its new acting general guide.Ikhwanweb, Twitter post, November 16, 2022, 9:50 a.m., https://twitter.com/Ikhwanweb/status/1592892835082149888; Ikhwanweb, Twitter post, November 16, 2022, 9:51 a.m., https://twitter.com/Ikhwanweb/status/1592893075382304769.

Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi served as ISIS’s caliph, Arabic for “successor,” since June 2014 until his death in 2019. In assuming the title, Baghdadi declared himself the religious, political, and military leader of all Muslims.“ISIS Spokesman Declares Caliphate, Rebrands Group as ‘Islamic State,’” SITE Institute, June 29, 2014, https://news.siteintelgroup.com/Jihadist-News/isis-spokesman-declares-caliphate-rebrands-group-as-islamic-state.html; “Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi: The man who would be caliph,” Week (London), September 13, 2014, http://theweek.com/article/index/267920/abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-the-man-who-would-be-caliph. Baghdadi was in hiding since the collapse of ISIS’s caliphate in Syria and Iraq.Martin Chulov, “‘We will get him’: the long hunt for Isis leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,” Guardian (London), January 15, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/15/long-hunt-for-isis-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi. He had been declared dead or seriously wounded on several occasions but reappeared in ISIS propaganda recordings, most recently in August 2018.Liz Sly, “Islamic State leader Baghdadi resurfaces, urges supporters to keep up the fight,” Washington Post, August 22, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/islamic-state-leader-baghdadi-resurfaces-urges-supporters-to-keep-up-the-fight/2018/08/22/ae3d9fe6-a657-11e8-ad6f-080770dcddc2_story.html?utm_term=.dbc76e0f32b8; “Islamic State chief, in rare speech, urges followers to fight on,” Reuters, August 22, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi/islamic-state-chief-in-rare-speech-urges-followers-to-fight-on-idUSKCN1L722F. The U.S. government announced on October 27, 2019, that U.S. forces killed Baghdadi in a raid by U.S. forces in Syria the previous night.Steve Holland and Phil Stewart, “Trump hails death of ‘depraved’ Islamic State leader Baghdadi in U.S. raid,” Reuters, October 27, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi/trump-hails-death-of-depraved-islamic-state-leader-baghdadi-in-u-s-raid-idUSKBN1X602N. ISIS appointed Abu Ibrahim al-Hashemi al-Qurayshi as Baghdadi’s successor.Hesham Abdulkhalek, Yousef Saba, and Ulf Laessing, “Islamic State confirms Baghdadi is dead, appoints successor,” Reuters, October 31, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi-confirmation/islamic-state-confirms-baghdadi-is-dead-appoints-successor-idUSKBN1XA25A.

Born “Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim al-Badri” in 1971 in Samarra, Iraq, Baghdadi had been careful to reveal little about his identity or background. There were reportedly only two publicly available photographs of Baghdadi prior to ISIS’s rise to the international stage in 2014. Known as the “invisible sheikh,” Baghdadi wore a mask when addressing other ISIS commanders. However, an un-masked Baghdadi addressed members of ISIS in July 2014 from the pulpit of Mosul’s Great Mosque.Aaron Y Zelin, “Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,” BBC News, July 30, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28560449; “Profile: Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,” BBC News, last modified July 5, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27801676.

In 1999, Baghdadi received his master’s degree and enrolled in doctorate programs at Saddam University for Islamic Studies in Quranic recitation and Quranic studies, respectively. While in graduate school, Baghdadi reportedly read the works of Muslim Brotherhood leaders who had espoused jihadism. At this time, Baghdadi’s paternal uncle, Ismail al-Badri, convinced him to join the Brotherhood. However, by 2000, Baghdadi reportedly grew impatient with the mainstream Brotherhood for what he saw as their prioritization of theory over action.William McCants, “The Believer,” Brookings Institute, September 1, 2015, http://www.brookings.edu/research/essays/2015/thebeliever.

In response to the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, Baghdadi founded the Jamaat Jaysh Ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-Jamaah (Army of the People of the Sunna and Communal Solidarity), a militant Sunni group to fight U.S. troops.Aaron Y Zelin, “Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,” BBC News, July 30, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28560449. Baghdadi was subsequently captured by U.S. forces and detained at Camp Bucca, an American-run prison camp along the Iraq-Kuwait border. Bucca held 100,000 suspected Jihadists between 2003 and 2009, including nine men who would go on to earn top positions within ISIS’s command.Terrance McCoy, “Camp Bucca: The US prison that became the birthplace of Isis,” Independent (London), November 4, 2014, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/camp-bucca-the-us-prison-that-became-the-birthplace-of-isis-9838905.html#gallery. Though the dates of his internment differ between reports, experts have placed Baghdadi at Bucca as early as 2004 and as late as 2009.Janine Di Giovanni, “WHO IS ISIS LEADER ABU BAKR AL-BAGHDADI?” Newsweek, December 8, 2014, http://www.newsweek.com/2014/12/19/who-isis-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-290081.html. The prison, which operated in Umm Qasr, Iraq, from 2003 to 2009, has held inmates that would go on to become top leaders in ISIS.“From Bucca to Kobani: The Hybrid Ideology of the Islamic State,” Soufan Group, October 24, 2014, http://soufangroup.com/tsg-intelbrief-from-bucca-to-kobani-the-hybrid-ideology-of-the-islamic-state/;
Andrew Thompson and Jeremy Suri, “How America Helped ISIS,” New York Times, October 1, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/02/opinion/how-america-helped-isis.html?_r=1.

Shortly after his release from Camp Bucca, Baghdadi joined the al-Qaeda-affiliated Islamic State in Iraq (ISI), the successor of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi’s al-Qaeda in Iraq. In April 2010, Baghdadi became the emir of ISI.Tim Arango, “Top Qaeda Leaders in Iraq Reported Killed in Raid,” New York Times, April 20, 2010, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7DA1F3DF933A15757C0A9669D8B63; “Profile: Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi,” BBC News, June 11, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27801676; William McCants, “The Believer,” Brookings Institution, September 1, 2015, http://www.brookings.edu/research/essays/2015/thebeliever.

The chaos of the Syrian civil war—beginning in 2011—soon provided an opportunity for Baghdadi’s ISI to expand into Syria. As a result of the chaos, al-Qaeda formed an affiliate in Syria, the Nusra Front, under the leadership of local al-Qaeda operative Abu Muhammad al-Golani. In the spring of 2013, Baghdadi ordered Golani and his Nusra Front to cease cooperation with Sunni militant groups in Syria and to focus on seizing territory. Golani refused to defer to Baghdadi’s strategy.William McCants, “The Believer,” Brookings Institute, September 1, 2015, http://www.brookings.edu/research/essays/2015/thebeliever.

In April 2013, Baghdadi publicly and unilaterally announced that the Nusra Front was an extension of ISI. He named the merger of the two groups “the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham,” or ISIS.“ISI Confirms That Jabhat Al-Nusra Is Its Extension In Syria, Declares 'Islamic State Of Iraq And Al-Sham' As New Name Of Merged Group,” MEMRI, April 8, 2013, http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/7119.htm. In a recorded statement released on jihadist websites, Baghdadi said, “It is time to announce to the Levantine people and the whole world that Jabhat al-Nusra [the Nusra Front] is merely an extension and part of the Islamic State of Iraq.”“Iraqi al-Qaeda and Syrian group ‘merge, ’” Al Jazeera, April 9, 2013, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/04/201349194856244589.html. Golani again refused to capitulate to Baghdadi, leading al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri to step in and warn Baghdadi against the merge. Baghdadi rejected his command and continued the group’s growth into Syria.Ghaith Abdul-Ahad, “Syria’s al-Nusra front- ruthless, organized and taking control,” Guardian (London), July 10, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/10/syria-al-nusra-front-jihadi. On June 29, 2014, Baghdadi declared the creation of the “Islamic caliphate” and named himself as the caliph (leader).“The jihadist offensive in Iraq: a timeline,” Agence France-Presse, August 15, 2014, http://www.afp.com/en/node/2730918.

During the summer of 2014, Baghdadi reportedly met with Salih al-Sabawi, an engineer who had contributed to Saddam Hussein’s chemical weapons arsenal. Sabawi was recruited to develop a similar chemical weapons program for the Islamic State. Under Sabawi, ISIS would successfully manufacture mustard gas and chlorine-filled bombs and rockets. Baghdadi and Sabawi planned to develop an arsenal of various biological and chemical weapons, intending to use these weapons in military campaigns and against major European cities, according to current and former U.S. officials.Joby Warrick, “ISIS planned chemical attacks in Europe, new details on weapons program reveal,” Washington Post, July 11, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/07/11/isis-chemical-biological-weapons/.

On July 5, 2014, Baghdadi made a public appearance at Mosul’s Great Mosque, and called on the world’s Muslims to “obey” him as caliph. Baghdadi proclaimed: “I was appointed to rule you but I am not the best among you…If you see me acting truly, then follow me. If you see me acting falsely, then advise and guide me…. If I disobey God, then do not obey me.”Hannah Strange, “Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi addresses Muslims in Mosul,” Telegraph (London), July 5, 2014, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10948480/Islamic-State-leader-Abu-Bakr-al-Baghdadi-addresses-Muslims-in-Mosul.html;
William McCants, “The Believer,” Brookings Institute, September 1, 2015, http://www.brookings.edu/research/essays/2015/thebeliever.

Baghdadi is the subject of U.N., EU, and other sanctions.“The List established and maintained by the Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee with respect to individuals, groups, undertakings and other entities associated with Al-Qaida,” United States Security Council, October 28, 2014, http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1267/pdf/AQList.pdf. He was falsely reported killed in an Iraqi airstrike in October 2015, was rumored to have been wounded in a coalition airstrike in June 2016, and was falsely reported killed in a Russian airstrike in May 2017.Ahmed Rasheed, “Islamic State figures killed in air strike; Baghdadi not believed among them,” Reuters, October 12, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-baghdadi-idUSKCN0S50KI20151012; “U.S., Iraqi officials can't confirm report Islamic State leader Baghdadi wounded,” Reuters, June 10, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi-idUSKCN0YW0QT; Dmitry Solovyov and Ahmen Rasheed, “Russia's military says it may have killed IS leader; West, Iraq skeptical,” Reuters, June 16, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-baghdadi/russias-military-says-it-may-have-killed-is-leader-west-iraq-skeptical-idUSKBN1970O2; Richard Spencer, “Airstrike injuries forced Baghdadi to cede control of Isis,” Times (London), February 13, 2018, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/baghdadi-gave-up-leadership-of-islamic-state-after-airstrike-injuries-3522wr0jt. U.S. officials confirmed that Baghdadi was severely wounded in a coalition airstrike in May 2017, forcing him to relinquish control over the terror organization for five months.Nick Patton Walsh, “ISIS leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi injured in airstrike last May, sources say,” CNN, February 12, 2018, https://www.cnn.com/2018/02/12/middleeast/isis-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-wounded-intl/index.html. Baghdadi released an audio recording on September 28, 2017, where he referenced current events in the recording to prove that he is still alive.Katherine Lam, “ISIS releases alleged al-Baghdadi tape, as shadowy leader appears to again escape death,” Fox News, September 28, 2017, http://www.foxnews.com/world/2017/09/28/is-releases-purported-audio-message-from-top-leader.html. One month later, U.S.-backed forces drove ISIS out of its self-declared capital in Raqqa, Syria.Anne Barnard and Hwaida Saad, “Raqqa, ISIS ‘Capital,” Is Captured, U.S.-Backed Forces Say,” New York Times, October 17, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/17/world/middleeast/isis-syria-raqqa.html.

In April 2018, a group of ISIS militants released a statement over the organization’s social media channels renewing their loyalty to Baghdadi.“Islamic State militants renew loyalty pledge to 'caliph' Baghdadi,” Reuters, April 4, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-islamic-state/islamic-state-militants-renew-loyalty-pledge-to-caliph-baghdadi-idUSKCN1HB1TC. On August 22, 2018, ISIS’s al-Furqan media group released an audio recording of Baghdadi calling on ISIS supporters to “persevere” and carry out lone-wolf attacks using bombs, knives, and cars. Baghdadi referenced current events to demonstrate that he is still alive, though experts could not immediately confirm whether the voice in the recording was actually his.Liz Sly, “Islamic State leader Baghdadi resurfaces, urges supporters to keep up the fight,” Washington Post, August 22, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/islamic-state-leader-baghdadi-resurfaces-urges-supporters-to-keep-up-the-fight/2018/08/22/ae3d9fe6-a657-11e8-ad6f-080770dcddc2_story.html?utm_term=.dbc76e0f32b8; “Islamic State chief, in rare speech, urges followers to fight on,” Reuters, August 22, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi/islamic-state-chief-in-rare-speech-urges-followers-to-fight-on-idUSKCN1L722F.

On the night of October 26, 2019, U.S. forces raided a compound in the village of Barisha in Syria’s Idlib province near the Turkish border. According to U.S. President Donald Trump, U.S. forces chased Baghdadi into a tunnel where he detonated a suicide vest. U.S. officials identified Baghdadi through a DNA test of the remains. Baghdadi also killed two of his children when his vest exploded, according to U.S. authorities. Five ISIS members were also killed during the assault. U.S. forces also reportedly captured valuable data and intelligence from the raid. The operation was named after U.S. aid worker Kayla Mueller, whom ISIS had captured in 2013. Baghdadi reportedly raped Mueller during her captivity. Mueller died in 2015 in ISIS custody.Steve Holland and Phil Stewart, “Trump hails death of ‘depraved’ Islamic State leader Baghdadi in U.S. raid,” Reuters, October 27, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi/trump-hails-death-of-depraved-islamic-state-leader-baghdadi-in-u-s-raid-idUSKBN1X602N; Chandelis Duster, “The Baghdadi raid was named after ISIS victim Kayla Mueller. Her parents say they’re ‘grateful,’” CNN, October 28, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/27/politics/kayla-mueller-parents-reaction-to-baghdadi-death/index.html; Zachary Cohen, Barbara Starr, and Ryan Browne, “Pentagon releases first images from raid that killed ISIS leader,” CNN, October 31, 2019, https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/30/politics/pentagon-baghdadi-raid-video/index.html.

ISIS’s Amaq News Agency acknowledged Baghdadi’s death on October 31 and praised him for his “military conquests.”Raja Abdulrahim and Nazih Osseiran, “Islamic State Names New Leader to Succeed Baghdadi,” Wall Street Journal, October 31, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/islamic-state-names-new-leader-to-succeed-baghdadi-11572537863. Amaq announced Abu Ibrahim al-Hashemi al-Qurayshi as his successor and ISIS’s new caliph. Amaq did not provide other details of Qurayshi’s identity.Hesham Abdulkhalek, Yousef Saba, and Ulf Laessing, “Islamic State confirms Baghdadi is dead, appoints successor,” Reuters, October 31, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-baghdadi-confirmation/islamic-state-confirms-baghdadi-is-dead-appoints-successor-idUSKBN1XA25A; Raja Abdulrahim and Nazih Osseiran, “Islamic State Names New Leader to Succeed Baghdadi,” Wall Street Journal, October 31, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/islamic-state-names-new-leader-to-succeed-baghdadi-11572537863; Rick Gladstone, “Isis Names New Leader as It Confirms Al-Bagdadi’s death,” New York Times, October 31, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/31/world/middleeast/isis-al-baghdadi-dead.html.

Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, born Ahmad Fadil Nazal al-Khalayleh, was the founder of ISIS’s predecessor, al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), and the former leader of two other terrorist organizations: al-Tawhid wal-Jihad and Jund al-Sham.“Foreign Terrorist Organization: Designation of Jama'at al-Tawhid wa'al-Jihad and Aliases,” U.S. Department of State, October 15, 2004, http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2004/37130.htm. Notorious for his videotaped beheadings, Zarqawi was implicated in numerous terrorist attacks and became the United States’ most-wanted terrorist in Iraq in 2005.Associated Press, “Al-Zarqawi tops U.S. most-wanted list in Iraq,” NBC News, February 22, 2005, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7011803/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/t/al-zarqawi-tops-us-most-wanted-list-iraq/. He was killed by a U.S. airstrike in June 2006.Ellen Knickmeyer and Jonathan Finer, “Insurgent Leader Al-Zarqawi Killed in Iraq,” Washington Post, June 8, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/08/AR2006060800114.html.

Zarqawi was born and raised in the Jordanian town of Zarqa.Mary Anne Weaver, “The Short, Violent Life of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,” Atlantic, July 1, 2006, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/07/the-short-violent-life-of-abu-musab-al-zarqawi/304983/. He was known for drinking and fighting at a young age, soon graduating to criminal activity.Lawrence Joffe, “Abu Musab al-Zarqawi obituary,” Guardian (London), June 8, 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/jun/09/guardianobituaries.alqaida. At age 15, Zarqawi was involved in a robbery and murder at his relative’s home, and two years later he dropped out of school. By the time he was 23 years old, Zarqawi was the subject of 37 criminal cases. He decided to travel to Afghanistan and wage jihad for the first time in 1989.Mary Anne Weaver, “The Short, Violent Life of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,” Atlantic, July 1, 2006, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/07/the-short-violent-life-of-abu-musab-al-zarqawi/304983/. There, Zarqawi  trained at a camp established by Osama bin Laden and Abdullah Azzam in Pakistan near the Afghan border, under al-Qaeda military chief Mohammed Atef.Mary Anne Weaver, “The Short, Violent Life of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,” Atlantic, July 1, 2006, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/07/the-short-violent-life-of-abu-musab-al-zarqawi/304983/.

Following the end of the Soviet-Afghan War, Zarqawi returned to Jordan in 1993 to form a militant Islamist group there. The group, which sought to overthrow the Jordanian kingdom, came to be known as al-Tawhid wal-Jihad. Zarqawi was arrested later that year after several bombing attempts in Jordan and received a sentence of 15 years in jail in 1994. During his time in prison, Zarqawi further self-radicalized while attempting to recruit other prisoners. He and fellow inmate Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi would use the Internet to broadcast their jihadist messages. In 1998, Zarqawi’s messages came to the attention of Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan.Mary Anne Weaver, “The Short, Violent Life of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,” Atlantic, July 1, 2006, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/07/the-short-violent-life-of-abu-musab-al-zarqawi/304983/.

In May 1999, Jordan’s King Abdullah II declared a general amnesty and Zarqawi was subsequently released. [1] He is believed to have immediately reengaged in terrorist activities, and the Jordanian government later declared him a suspect in foiled terrorist attacks planned for New Year’s Eve 1999.[2] After several months at home in Zarqa, Zarqawi fled the country for Pakistan. In December 1999, he crossed the border into Afghanistan and met with bin Laden at the Government Guest House in Kandahar, Taliban’s de facto capital. [3] According to Israeli intelligence and witnesses at the meeting, bin Laden immediately “disliked” Zarqawi because he was aggressive and had openly criticized bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Bin Laden found Zarqawi’s fiercely anti-Shiite rhetoric to be extreme.However, following debate within al-Qaeda’s leadership, Zarqawi received $5,000 to establish his own camp in Afghanistan near the Iran border and developed his new group, Jund al-Sham.Mary Anne Weaver, “The Short, Violent Life of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,” Atlantic, July 1, 2006, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/07/the-short-violent-life-of-abu-musab-al-zarqawi/304983/;
Thom Patterson, “The unlikely godfather of the Islamic State,” CNN, July 3 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/29/middleeast/declassified-zarqawi-father-of-isis/index.html.

In October 2001, following al-Qaeda’s September 11 attacks, Zarqawi and his fighters joined forces with al-Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan, where he was wounded in an U.S. airstrike. In December of that year, Zarqawi and 300 Jund al-Sham fighters relocated to Iran to establish a base there, and Zarqawi remained there for 14 months before traveling to northern Iraq, Syria and South of Lebanon.Mary Anne Weaver, “The Short, Violent Life of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,” Atlantic, July 1, 2006, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2006/07/the-short-violent-life-of-abu-musab-al-zarqawi/304983/. Zarqawi re-entered Iraq sometime after the U.S.-led invasion the country, attracting more sympathizers and fighters. In October 2004, Zarqawi declared himself the emir of al-Qaeda’s satellite in Iraq, al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI).Ted Kemp, “Abu Musab al-Zarqawi is the man who founded ISIS,” CNBC, August 11, 2016, http://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/11/who-founded-isis-abu-musb-al-zarqawi-started-the-terror-group.html. In December 2004, bin Laden accepted Zarqawi’s pledge of allegiance, essentially sanctioning his role as the leader of an al-Qaeda franchise.Lawrence Joffe, “Abu Musab al-Zarqawi obituary,” Guardian (London), June 8, 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/jun/09/guardianobituaries.alqaida.

During the U.S. war in Iraq, Zarqawi continued his spate of deadly terrorist attacks and rose to global infamy with his kidnappings and killings of foreigners. Zarqawi became notorious for his videotaped beheadings, starting with the killing of U.S. citizen Nicholas Berg in May 2004.Lawrence Joffe, “Abu Musab al-Zarqawi obituary,” Guardian (London), June 8, 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/jun/09/guardianobituaries.alqaida. ISIS, AQI’s successor, has since adopted Zarqawi’s infamous practice. The group has also filmed other forms of gruesome violence against its hostages, including the horrific murder of Jordanian pilot Moaz al-Kasasbeh, and has also adopted Zarqawi’s practice of engaging in brutal sectarian violence.Thom Patterson, “The unlikely godfather of the Islamic State,” CNN, July 3 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/29/middleeast/declassified-zarqawi-father-of-isis/index.html.

In the mid-2000s, Zarqawi continued to alienate his former supporters, including al-Qaeda’s senior leaders and some Iraqi Sunni Muslims. On November 9, 2005, a series of bombs claimed by AQI ripped through three hotels throughout Amman, killing 60 people and prompting outcry from Iraqi Sunnis.Lawrence Joffe, “Abu Musab al-Zarqawi obituary,” Guardian, June 8, 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/jun/09/guardianobituaries.alqaida. In November 18, 2005, Zarqawi was disowned by his former cohort, Maqdisi, for attacking civilians during the Amman hotel bombings.Ian Black, “Jordan releases jihadi cleric and Isis critic after group’s murder of pilot,” Guardian, February 5, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/05/jordan-release-jihadi-cleric-al-maqdisi-isis-killing-pilot-al-kasasbeh.

The United States intensified its hunt for Zarqawi in late 2005 and 2006.Thom Patterson, “The unlikely godfather of the Islamic State,” CNN, July 3 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/06/29/middleeast/declassified-zarqawi-father-of-isis/index.html. On June 7, 2006, after weeks of tracking him, U.S. warplanes targeted a house in which Zarqawi was convening a meeting. Zarqawi was later confirmed dead along with several other prominent insurgent leaders by U.S. intelligence and al-Qaeda.Ellen Knickmeyer and Jonathan Finer, “Insurgent Leader Al-Zarqawi Killed in Iraq,” Washington Post, June 8, 2006, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/08/AR2006060800114.html.

Nikolaos Michaloliakos is the founder and former leader of Greece’s neo-Nazi Golden Dawn party. He appears to openly advocate anti-Semitic, racist, and neo-Nazi views as well as a fundamental general contempt for liberal democracy. Long confined to the fringes of Greek politics, Michaloliakos was able to exploit popular resentment of the government’s austerity measures to broaden Golden Dawn’s appeal and position the party as the third strongest force in Greek politics. Following the local and European election in May 2014. Helen Smith, “SS songs and antisemitism: the week Golden Dawn turned openly Nazi," Guardian, June 7, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/07/greece-golden-dawn-fascism-threat-to-democracy. On October 7, 2020, Michaloliakos, along with other senior members of Golden Dawn, were found guilty of running a criminal organization.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html.

Michaloliakos appears to have embraced neo-Nazi and racist ideas from an early age. At 16, he allegedly joined the party of Konstantinos Plevris, which reportedly supported the military junta in Greece in 1967 and is said to hold ultra-nationalist and homophobic views. Andy Dabilis, “Profile Of A Greek Extremist: Nikolaos Michaloliakos,” Greek Reporter, September 28, 2013, http://greece.greekreporter.com/2013/09/28/profile-of-an-greek-extremist-nikolaos-michaloliakos/. In 1979, Michaloliakos was convicted for “carrying illegal weapons and explosives as a member of a far-right group,” spending a short time in prison where he reportedly met members of the Greek military junta, including former leader Georgios Papadopoulos. Yiannis Baboulias, “Who is Nikolaos Michaloliakos?“, London Review of Books, October 3, 2013, http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2013/10/03/yiannis-baboulias/who-is-nikolaos-michaloliakos/. Following his release from prison, Michaloliakos began to publish the fascist publication Golden Dawn (Chrysi Avgi). The cover of one of the first issues carried a picture of Adolf Hitler.Yiannis Baboulias, “Who is Nikolaos Michaloliakos?,“ London Review of Books, October 3, 2013, http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2013/10/03/yiannis-baboulias/who-is-nikolaos-michaloliakos/. Michaloliakos founded the Golden Dawn party in 1985.

After years in political obscurity, Golden Dawn emerged as a political force during the 2012 Greek general election, where the party received 6.9 percent of the votes, translating into 18 seats. Since then, the party has gained recognition and notoriety due to its anti-Semitic and racist views, numerous violent attacks on immigrants and leftists, as well as hostility to the democratic process.Yiannis Baboulias, “Who is Nikolaos Michaloliakos?,“ London Review of Books, October 3, 2013, http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2013/10/03/yiannis-baboulias/who-is-nikolaos-michaloliakos/.

Following the murder of anti-fascist rapper Pavlos Fyssas in 2013, Greek prosecutors attempted to prove Michaloliakos’s control over the activities—and criminal character—of Golden Dawn. Helena Smith, “Greek prosecutor orders all Golden Dawn MPs to face criminal trial,“ Guardian, October 16, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences. On September 28, 2013, Greek authorities arrested Michaloliakos and other members of Golden Dawn on charges of being a member of a criminal organization. They were also investigated for manslaughter, assault, extortion, bombings, and money laundering.Liz Alderman, “Greece Arrests Senior Members of Far-Right Party,” New York Times, September 28, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/world/europe/greece-cracks-down-on-golden-dawn-with-arrests.html. Due to the group’s strict hierarchical structure, Yiannis Baboulias, “Who is Nikolaos Michaloliakos?,“ London Review of Books, October 3, 2013, http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2013/10/03/yiannis-baboulias/who-is-nikolaos-michaloliakos/. Michaloliakos appeared to serve as the mastermind of Golden Dawn’s activities.Helena Smith, “Greek Prosecutor Orders All Golden Dawn MPs to Face Criminal Trial,” Guardian, October 16, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences. When police raided Michaloliakos’s house in 2013, they found a portrait of Hitler, three unlicensed guns, and €40,000 in cash.Yiannis Baboulias, “Who is Nikolaos Michaloliakos?,“ London Review of Books, October 3, 2013, http://www.lrb.co.uk/blog/2013/10/03/yiannis-baboulias/who-is-nikolaos-michaloliakos/. Michaloliakos was placed in pre-trial custody on October 3, 2013, and on March 20, 2015, he was released from jail as Greek law allows for a maximum pre-trial detention period of 18 months.Omaira Gill, “Greece’s Golden Dawn trial going nowhere fast,” Deutsche Welle, April 20, 2016, https://www.dw.com/en/greeces-golden-dawn-trial-going-nowhere-fast/a-19197580; “Leader of Greek far-right Golden Dawn freed from jail before trial,” Reuters, March 20, 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-goldendawn/leader-of-greek-far-right-golden-dawn-freed-from-jail-before-trial-idUSKBN0MG1LD20150320.

Although once the third-most popular political party, public support for Golden Dawn steadily decreased following reports of the party’s ties to crime and the murder of rapper Fyssas.“Leader of Golden Dawn Jailed on Charges of Running Criminal Organization,” Voice of America, October 3, 2013, https://www.voanews.com/a/leader-of-golden-dawn-jailed-on-charges-of-running-criminal-organization/1761965.html. Following national elections in July 2019, the party failed to secure the 3 percent threshold gain a single seat in Greece’s parliament.Renee Maltezou, “Golden Dawn Loses Its Luster as Greeks Reject Militant Far-right,” Reuters, July 08, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-election-golden-dawn/golden-dawn-loses-its-luster-as-greeks-reject-militant-far-right-idUSKCN1U31ND.

Michaloliakos first testified in court on November 6, 2019. He denied charges of running a criminal organization and claimed the accusations were a political tactic to denigrate and dismantle Golden Dawn.“Michaloliakos takes the stand in Golden Dawn trial,” Ekathimerini, November 6, 2011, https://www.ekathimerini.com/246179/article/ekathimerini/news/michaloliakos-takes-the-stand-in-golden-dawn-trial. On October 7, 2020, the Athens Appeals Court found Golden Dawn guilty of running a criminal organization. More than 68 defendants, including the entire group’s leadership, faced charges of operating a criminal organization while posing as a political group, attempted murder, possession of weapons, and employing violence to remove political rivals, migrants, and communists. The senior members of the organization, including Michaloliakos, faced sentences of five to 15 years in prison.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html; Tim Hume, “Greece’s Neo-Nazi Golden Dawn Party Have Been Ruled a Criminal Organisation,” Vice News, October 7, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/n7wax7/greece-neo-nazi-golden-dawn-party-criminal-organisation; Angeliki Koutantou and Karolina Tagaris, “Leader of Greece's far-right Golden Dawn held in custody before trial,” Reuters, October 3, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/03/us-greece-goldendawn-leader-idUSBRE9920ZF20131003. On October 14, 2020 Michaloliakos was sentenced to 13 years in prison, alongside five other Golden Dawn members.Niki Kitsantonis, “Court Sentences Leaders of Greece’s Golden Dawn to Prison,” New York Times, October 14, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/14/world/europe/greece-golden-dawn-sentencing.html. On October 23, he turned himself in to authorities to begin serving his sentence.Golden Dawn's Pappas on the Run as Colleagues Start Jail Terms,” BBC News, October 23, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54657540.

Mullah Mohammed Omar was the founder and former emir (leader) of the Taliban. In late July 2015, Afghan government sources reported that Omar died as early as April 2013 in Karachi, Pakistan. Taliban spokesmen initially denied the allegation,Ayaz Gul, Voice of America, July 29, 2015, http://www.voanews.com/content/taliban-denies-reported-death-of-leader-mullah-omar/2883023.html" but later confirmed it. A meeting of the Taliban leadership—the Quetta Shura—unanimously elevated Omar’s deputy, Mullah Akhtar Mohammad Mansour, to replace him.“Taliban confirms death of Mullah Omar, names new leader,” France 24, July 30, 2015, http://www.france24.com/en/20150730-taliban-confrms-death-omar-names-new-leader-afghanistan-mansour.

It is suspected that Omar had been sheltered with the connivance of Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), the country’s military intelligence service. Pakistan denies such allegations and always posited that Omar resided in Afghanistan.Ben Farmer, “Mullah Mohammad Omar: Profile,” Telegraph (London), May 23, 2011, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/al-qaeda/8531476/Mullah-Mohammad-Omar-profile-of-the-one-eyed-Taliban-leader.html.

Omar was born near Kandahar, Afghanistan, circa 1960.Ahmed Rashid, Taliban, (Yale University Press: 2010), 23. After a childhood spent in isolated Pashtun villages, Omar moved to the Mewand district of Kandahar province, where he became a local mullah (religious leader) and opened a madrassa (Islamic school).Ahmed Rashid, Taliban, (Yale University Press: 2010), 24. After the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979,Ivan Watson, “Mullah Omar is still the leader of the Taliban, new biography claims,” CNN, April 6, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/06/asia/taliban-mullah-omar-biography/. Omar left his studies to join the mujahideen, an Islamic insurgent force battling the Soviet occupation. After participating in the anti-Soviet jihad, Omar linked up with Hizb-e-Islami, an Islamic resistance movement to the Soviet-backed Najibullah regime between 1989 and 1992.Ahmed Rashid, Taliban, (Yale University Press: 2010), 24. Omar was wounded on four occasions, including the loss of vision in his right eye.Ivan Watson, “Mullah Omar is still the leader of the Taliban, new biography claims,” CNN, April 6, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/06/asia/taliban-mullah-omar-biography/. He emerged from the anti-Soviet jihad as the most formidable rebel leader in Afghanistan.

In 1994, Omar appointed himself Emir-ul Momineen (Leader of the Faithful),Ahmed Rashid, Taliban, (Yale University Press: 2010), 250. laying claim to the mantle of commanding the umma (community of all Muslims).Ahmed Rashid, Taliban, (Yale University Press: 2010), 42. Soon after, Omar extended an invitation to Osama bin Laden to set up terrorist training camps on Afghan soil. Bin Laden promptly accepted the invitation, and the alliance between the Taliban and al-Qaeda was born.Steve Coll, “Looking for Mullah Omar,” New Yorker, January 23, 2012, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/01/23/looking-for-mullah-omar.

After al-Qaeda launched the 9/11 attacks against the United States, the Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders.Alez Spillius, “We won’t hand over bin Laden, say defiant Taliban,” Telegraph (London), September 22, 2001, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/1341340/We-wont-hand-over-bin-Laden-say-defiant-Taliban.html; Steve Coll, “Looking for Mullah Omar,” New Yorker, January 23, 2012, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/01/23/looking-for-mullah-omar; John F. Burns, “A Nation Challenged: The Taliban; Afghans Coaxing bin laden, But U.S. Rejects Clerics’ Bid,” New York Times, September 21, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/21/world/nation-challenged-taliban-afghans-coaxing-bin-laden-but-us-rejects-clerics-bid.html; Norman Kempster and Tyler Marshall, “Taliban Rejects Bush Ultimatum,” Los Angeles Times, September 22, 2001, http://articles.latimes.com/2001/sep/22/news/mn-48537. Omar managed to survive a $10 million bounty on his headIvan Watson, “Mullah Omar is still the leader of the Taliban, new biography claims,” CNN, April 6, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/06/asia/taliban-mullah-omar-biography/. owing to his extreme sense of secrecy. When he was the de facto leader of Afghanistan, Omar was rarely seen outside his inner circle and infrequently visited the capital, Kabul.Ben Farmer, “Mullah Mohammad Omar: Profile,” Telegraph, May 23, 2011, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/al-qaeda/8531476/Mullah-Mohammad-Omar-profile-of-the-one-eyed-Taliban-leader.html. Omar never met with or had been photographed by Western diplomats or journalists.Ahmed Rashid, Taliban, (Yale University Press: 2010), 23.

In July 2015, the Taliban named Mansour, as the group’s new emir.“Taliban confirms death of Mullah Omar, names new leader,” France 24, July 30, 2015, http://www.france24.com/en/20150730-taliban-confrms-death-omar-names-new-leader-afghanistan-mansour. In September 2015, Omar’s eldest son, Mohammad Yaqoob, issued a statement declaring his father had died of natural causes in Afghanistan. He called for unity in the Taliban amid disagreements over its leadership.Jibran Ahmad, “Taliban’s Mullah Omar died of natural causes in Afghanistan, son says,” Reuters, September 14, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pakistan-taliban/talibans-mullah-omar-died-of-natural-causes-in-afghanistan-son-says-idUSKCN0RE0RC20150914. Members of Yaqoob’s family reportedly sought to elevate him to his father’s leadership role but acquiesced to Mansour’s appointment in exchange for benefits. In April 2016, Yaqoob was appointed head of the Taliban’s military commission for 15 provinces in Afghanistan and appointed to the Taliban’s Rahbari Shura (leadership council).Jibran Ahmad, “Son of Afghan Taliban founder given top council post,” Reuters, April 4, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-taliban-mansour/son-of-afghan-taliban-founder-given-top-council-post-idUSKCN0X121E. In May 2020, Yaqoob, was promoted to the role of the Taliban’s military chief.Ben Farmer, “Taliban founder’s son appointed military chief of insurgents,” Telegraph (London), May 7, 2020, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/05/07/taliban-founders-son-appointed-military-chief-insurgents/.

Ayman al-Zawahiri co-founded al-Qaeda with Osama bin Laden in 1988. He had led the group since bin Laden’s death in 2011 and expanded the number of al-Qaeda affiliates around the world. The FBI’s Rewards for Justice program offered a reward of $25 million for information leading to Zawahiri’s capture.“Most Wanted Terrorists: Ayman Al-Zawahiri,” FBI, accessed August 7, 2017, https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/wanted_terrorists/ayman-al-zawahiri. Zawahiri maintained that al-Qaeda’s primary target is the United States and “its ally Israel, and secondly its local allies that rule our countries.”Ayman al-Zawahiri, “General Guidelines for Jihad,” As-Sahab Media, September 2013, https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/dr-ayman-al-e1ba93awc481hirc4ab-22general-guidelines-for-the-work-of-a-jihc481dc4ab22-en.pdf. On November 20, 2020, security sources in Pakistan and Afghanistan as well as an al-Qaeda translator with close ties to the group, claimed Zawahiri died in Ghazni, Afghanistan, from “asthma because he had no formal treatment.”Baker Atyani and Sayed Salahuddin, “Al-Qaeda chief Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan — sources,” Arab News, November 20, 2020, https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1765746/world; Tim Stickings, “Al-Qaeda's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri has died, reports claim terror chief Ayman al-Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan from 'asthma-related breathing issues',” Daily Mail, November 20, 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8970231/Al-Qaedas-leader-Ayman-al-Zawahiri-died-reports-claim.html. Zawahiri later appeared in al-Qaeda videos released in September 2021 and November 2021, though it is unclear when those videos were recorded. Al-Qaeda released a video in early April 2022 of Zawahiri referencing current events earlier that year.Kathy Gannon, “Al-Qaida leader circulates video, dispels rumor of his death,” Associated Press, April 6, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/ayman-al-zawahri-india-asia-islamabad-religion-0a86c9db2813f4258a01b146102628af. Zawahiri was killed in a CIA drone strike in Afghanistan on July 31, 2022.Matthew Lee, Nomaan Merchant, Mike Balsamo, and James Laporta, “Biden: Drone strike on al-Qaida leader delivered ‘justice,’” Associated Press, August 1, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/ayman-al-zawahri-al-qaida-terrorism-biden-36e5f10256c9bc9972b252849eda91f2.

Zawahiri’s path to extremism began in Egypt. He first joined the Muslim Brotherhood as a teenager and was arrested at age 15 for membership in the group.“Profile: Ayman al-Zawahiri,” BBC News, August 13, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13789286. In 1973, Zawahiri joined the Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ). He would go on to earn a medical degree and become a surgeon. Following the 1981 assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, Egypt jointly tried Zawahiri and hundreds of other EIJ members for conspiracy in assassination. Zawahiri was known during the trial as Defendant 113.“Authorities target bin Laden's second-in-command,” CNN, September 28, 2001, http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/28/inv.second.command/; Leila Fadel, “In Egypt, A New Courtroom Drama Every Day,” NPR, March 14, 2014, http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/03/14/289815812/in-egypt-a-new-courtroom-drama-every-day. The court sentenced Zawahiri to three years in prison for the illegal possession of weapons.“Profile: Ayman al-Zawahiri,” BBC News, August 13, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13789286.Following his release in 1985, Zawahiri traveled to Saudi Arabia.“Timeline of Al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/; “Profile: Ayman al-Zawahiri,” BBC News, August 13, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13789286. In 1987, Zawahiri met bin Laden in Pakistan, where Zawahiri was treating wounded Islamist fighters from the Afghan-Soviet war.“Timeline of Al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/; “Authorities target bin Laden's second-in-command,” CNN, September 28, 2001, http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/28/inv.second.command/. The following year, he helped bin Laden establish al-Qaeda in Peshawar, Pakistan.Declan Walsh, “Ayman al-Zawahiri: from doctor to Osama bin Laden's successor,” Guardian (London), June 16, 2001, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/16/ayman-al-zawahiri-osama-bin-laden.

Zawahiri returned to Egypt and became the leader of the EIJ in 1993.“Profile: Ayman al-Zawahiri,” BBC News, August 13, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13789286. Zawahiri allegedly moved to Yemen in late 1994 for about a year before traveling to Pakistan. It is unclear if Zawahiri took command of EIJ in Yemen alongside cell leader Ahmad al-Naggar. However it is reported that Zawahiri continued to direct EIJ in Egypt from Yemen.“The Role of Egyptian Militants in Developing al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula,” Jamestown Foundation, January 6, 2011, https://www.refworld.org/docid/4d26cd802.html. Under his leadership, the EIJ carried out a 1995 bombing of Egypt’s embassy in Pakistan, as well as a failed assassination attempt on Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak.Phil Hirschkorn, “Al-Zawahiri faces single set of U.S. charges,” CNN, March 19, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/03/18/alzawahiri.charges/. In February 1998, the Zawahiri-led EIJ joined with al-Qaeda, the Egyptian Islamic Group, the Jamiat-ul-Ulema-e-Pakistan, and the Jihad Movement in Bangladesh to form the World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and Christians. The groups released a joint fatwa calling on Muslims to “kill the Americans and their allies -- civilians and military….”“Profile: Ayman al-Zawahiri,” BBC News, August 13, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13789286; “Timeline of Al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/; “Jihad Against Jews and Christians,” Federation of American Scientists, February 23, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm. On August 6, the EIJ sent a fax to an Egyptian newspaper, stating that the terrorist group would seek revenge against the United States for arresting several of the group’s members. The following day, al-Qaeda bombed the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people.“Authorities target bin Laden's second-in-command,” CNN, September 28, 2001, http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/28/inv.second.command/. The U.S. government indicted Zawahiri for his role in the attacks.Phil Hirschkorn, “Al-Zawahiri faces single set of U.S. charges,” CNN, March 19, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/03/18/alzawahiri.charges/. In 1999, an Egyptian court sentenced Zawahiri in absentia to death for his role in an alleged terrorist plot against U.S. interests in Albania.“Ayman al-Zawahiri Fast Facts,” CNN, June 10, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2012/12/14/world/ayman-al-zawahiri---fast-facts/index.html.

Zawahiri merged the EIJ into al-Qaeda in June 2001.“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,” U.S. Department of State, April 2009, 305, https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf. Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Interpol issued an international arrest warrant for Zawahiri.“Authorities target bin Laden's second-in-command,” CNN, September 28, 2001, http://www.cnn.com/2001/US/09/28/inv.second.command/. The following month, bin Laden’s biographer, Hamid Mir, told the Christian Science Monitor that bin Laden was the public face of al-Qaeda but Zawahiri held more sway over the group’s direction. Zawahiri “is not interested in fighting in the mountains. He is thinking more internationally,” according to Mir.Scott Baldauf, “The ‘cave man’ and Al Qaeda,” Christian Science Monitor, October 31, 2001, https://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1031/p6s1-wosc.html. Zawahiri’s wife and three children died in a U.S. strike against the family’s home in Afghanistan in December 2001.Chelsea J. Carter, “Al Qaeda leader calls for kidnapping of Westerners,” CNN, October 28, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/10/27/world/asia/al-qaeda-kidnap-threat/.

By 2009, the U.S. State Department believed that bin Laden served only as a figurehead in al-Qaeda, while Zawahiri had emerged as the group’s “strategic and operational planner.”“U.S. Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,” U.S. Department of State, April 2009, 318, https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf. Zawahiri became al-Qaeda’s new leader after bin Laden’s May 2011 death.“Ayman al-Zawahiri appointed as al-Qaeda leader,” BBC News, June 16, 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13788594. That August, al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the kidnapping of U.S. citizen Warren Weinstein in Pakistan. Two months later, Zawahiri released a video statement calling for Muslims to kidnap more U.S. citizens to win the freedom of captured fighters.Chelsea J. Carter, “Al Qaeda leader calls for kidnapping of Westerners,” CNN, October 28, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/10/27/world/asia/al-qaeda-kidnap-threat/.

Under Zawahiri’s stewardship, al-Qaeda became increasingly decentralized, with authority resting primarily in the hands of al-Qaeda’s affiliate leaders. Zawahiri brokered mergers with a number of Islamist groups including al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (previously the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat or GSPC) and al-Shabab.Jean-Pierre Filiu, “Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb: Algerian Challenge or Global Threat?” Carnegie Papers Number 104 (2009): 3; Jonathan Masters, “Al-Shabab,” Council on Foreign Relations, http://www.cfr.org/somalia/al-shabab/p18650. Zawahiri also sanctioned the creation of a number of al-Qaeda affiliates, including al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and the Nusra Front. In September 2014, Zawahiri announced the creation of al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS).Bill Roggio, “Al Qaeda Opens Branch in the ‘Indian Subcontinent,’” Long War Journal, September 3, 2014, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2014/09/al_qaeda_opens_branc.php. Analysts generally believe that Zawahiri created AQIS in order to promote al-Qaeda’s brand as ISIS was gaining influence.Jordan Olmstead, “The Real Reason al-Qaeda Is Establishing an India Branch,” Diplomat, September 23, 2014, http://thediplomat.com/2014/09/the-real-reason-al-qaeda-is-establishing-an-india-branch/.

Zawahiri severed al-Qaeda’s ties with ISIS in February 2014 due to the group’s repeated attempts to subsume al-Qaeda’s Syrian affiliate, the Nusra Front, under its command.Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda’s General Command Disowns the Islamic State of Iraq and the Sham,” Long War Journal, February 3, 2014, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2014/02/al_qaedas_general_co.php. Zawahiri has publicly criticized ISIS and its declared caliph, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. In a series of audio messages released in September 2015, Zawahiri accused Baghdadi of dividing the Muslim community. He called ISIS’s declared caliphate in Iraq and Syria to be illegitimate because it “is an emirate of taking over without consultation, and Muslims are not obligated to pledge allegiance to it.”Tim Lister, “Al Qaeda leader to ISIS: You’re wrong, but we can work together,” CNN, September 15, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/14/middleeast/al-zawahiri-al-qaeda-isis-olive-branch/. In another audio message that month, Zawahiri called for Islamist fighters in Syria and Iraq to unite against “the crusaders, the Safavids, and the secularists….”Tim Lister, “Al Qaeda leader to ISIS: You’re wrong, but we can work together,” CNN, September 15, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/14/middleeast/al-zawahiri-al-qaeda-isis-olive-branch/. Despite his criticism of ISIS, Zawahiri has not ruled out the possibility of cooperating with ISIS, or absorbing its fighters if ISIS is eventually defeated.Carla E. Humud, “Al Qaeda and U.S. Policy: Middle East and Africa,” Congressional Research Service, August 11, 2016, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/R43756.pdf.

Zawahiri was in hiding since the U.S.-led coalition overthrew the Taliban government in December 2001. Security analysts believed that Zawahiri most likely resided in the Afghan-Pakistan border region, although he repeatedly managed to evade capture.“Al-Qaeda's remaining leaders,” BBC, December 6, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11489337. The Obama administration reportedly targeted Zawahiri in a January 2016 drone strike in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Area. Newsweek reported that the strike killed five of Zawahiri’s bodyguards and wounded the al-Qaeda leader, but he ultimately escaped. Reports emerged in early 2017 that Zawahiri was in Karachi, Pakistan, allegedly under the protection of Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence agency.Jeff Stein, “Ayman Al-Zawahiri: How a CIA Drone Strike Nearly Killed the Head of Al-Qaeda,” Newsweek, April 21, 2017, http://www.newsweek.com/ayman-al-zawahiri-cia-donald-trump-drone-strike-osama-bin-laden-pakistan-587732.

On November 13, 2020, there were reports that Zawahiri may be dead or at least “completely off the grid.” The claim came from Hassan Hassan, the director of the U.S.-based Center for Global Policy (CGP), who has closely monitored the militant group’s activities over the years. According to Hassan—who corroborated the claim with sources close to al-Qaeda—Zawahiri had been seriously ill and had possibly died in mid-October due to natural causes.Daniel L. Byman, “The death of Ayman al-Zawahri and the future of al-Qaida,” Brookings, November 17, 2020, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/11/17/the-death-of-ayman-al-zawahri-and-the-future-of-al-qaida/; Hassan Hassan, Twitter, November 13, 2020, https://twitter.com/hxhassan/status/1328378494611492865?s=20. According to Arab News on November 20, security sources in Pakistan and Afghanistan as well as an al-Qaeda translator with close ties to the group, claimed Zawahiri died in Ghazni, Afghanistan from “asthma because he had no formal treatment.” The exact date of Zawahiri’s death was not released, but a Pakistani anti-terror security officer claims Zawahiri died sometime in November 2020.Baker Atyani and Sayed Salahuddin, “Al-Qaeda chief Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan — sources,” Arab News, November 20, 2020, https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1765746/world; Tim Stickings, “Al-Qaeda's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri has died, reports claim terror chief Ayman al-Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan from 'asthma-related breathing issues',” Daily Mail, November 20, 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8970231/Al-Qaedas-leader-Ayman-al-Zawahiri-died-reports-claim.html. It is suspected that Saif al-Adel, one of Zawahiri’s chief deputies, is next in line to succeed Zawahiri as the leader of al-Qaeda.Kabir Taneja, “Al Qaeda is battered, but don’t rejoice yet,” Observer Research Foundation, November 18, 2020, https://www.orfonline.org/research/al-qaeda-is-battered-but-dont-rejoice-yet/.

On March 12, 2021, al-Qaeda released a new video featuring Zawahiri’s voice addressing the plight of Rohingya Muslims in China. However, Zawahiri was not the main speaker, nor did he physically appear in the video, leading observers to question whether the video had used pieces of a previously recorded speech by Zawahiri.“New video message from al-Qai’dah’s Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri: “The Wound of the Rohingya is the Wound of the Islamic Nation,” Jihadology, March 12, 2021, https://jihadology.net/2021/03/12/new-video-message-from-al-qaidahs-dr-ayman-al-%e1%ba%93awahiri-the-wound-of-the-rohingya-is-the-wound-of-the-islamic-nation/; Cole Bunzel, “Is Ayman al-Zawahiri Dead?,” Jihadica, March 17, 2021, http://www.jihadica.com/is-ayman-al-zawahiri-dead/.

On June 5, 2021, the United Nations released a report that claimed Zawahiri was alive, albeit in too frail of a condition to be featured in propaganda. The same report claims that Zawahiri is located somewhere in the border region of Afghanistan and Pakistan, and that al-Qaeda’s current strategy is maintaining its safe haven in Afghanistan for core al-Qaeda leaders before resuming attacks against international targets.“Al-Qaeda leader Aiman al-Zawahiri probably alive but too frail: UN report,” Tribune, June 5, 2021, https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/world/al-qaeda-leader-aiman-al-zawahiri-probably-alive-but-too-frail-un-report-263808?.

According to the SITE Intelligence Group, on September 10, 2021, al-Qaeda’s media arm published an 852-page book that was allegedly written by Zawahiri. The book focused on the “history of political corruption in Muslim history.”Andy Gregory, “Al-Qaeda leader rumoured to be dead appears in video released on 9/11 anniversary,” Independent, September 13, 2021, https://www.independent.co.uk/asia/south-asia/al-qaeda-911-ayman-al-zawahiri-b1918788.html?r=15730. The next day—20 years after the 9/11 attacks—on September 11, 2021, al-Qaeda released a video in which Zawahiri praised the U.S. military’s withdrawal from Afghanistan as well as a January 2021 attack targeting Russian troops in Syria. However, SITE noted that Zawahiri could have potentially recorded the video sometime after the January 2021 attack in Syria. Given that Zawahiri did not mention the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in August, there remains doubt over whether he is still alive.“Al-Qaida chief appears in video marking 9/11 anniversary,” Associated Press, September 12, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-syria-afghanistan-taliban-islamic-state-group-79fc96bd028a31718e3c69fc6aba2a96.

Speaking to CBS News on October 23, 2021, former U.S. Special Envoy to Afghanistan Zalmay Khalilzad suggested Zawahiri may be hiding in Afghanistan or a neighboring country.Margaret Brennan and Camilla Schick, “Zalmay Khalilzad sticks by his Taliban deal, says the U.S. should have pressed President Ghani harder,” CBS News, October 23, 2021, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/zalmay-khalilzad-sticks-by-taliban-deal-says-the-u-s-should-have-pressed-president-ghani-harder/. On November 23, al-Qaeda released a video featuring Zawahiri called, “An Advice for the United Ummah concerning the reality of the United Nations.” Zawahiri condemned the United Nations, which he said was “created by the victorious powers in the Second World War with the aim of imposing a political system and doctrine on the entire world, and with a view to establishing their hegemony over the rest of mankind.”“An Advice for the United Ummah concerning the reality of the United Nations Shaykh Dr. Ayman al Zawahiri (may Allah protect him),” Al Sahab Media Foundation, November 23, 2021. It is unclear when the video was recorded.“Al Qaeda chief Zawahiri, in a new video, criticises UN for being hostile towards Islam,” WION, November 25, 2021, https://www.wionews.com/world/al-qaeda-chief-zawahiri-in-a-new-video-criticises-un-for-being-hostile-towards-islam-431829. Al-Qaeda released two other videos featuring Zawahiri in February 2022.“Al Qaeda’s Zawahiri surfaces in video again; calls on Muslims to champion cause of ‘oppressed,’” WION, February 9, 2022, https://www.wionews.com/world/al-qaedas-zawahiri-surfaces-in-video-again-calls-on-muslims-to-champion-cause-of-oppressed-451610; “Together Towards Allah – Part 3,” Al Sahab Media Foundation, February 9, 2022. A U.N. report released early that month noted the belief Zawahiri is in poor health.“Letter dated 3 February 2022 from the Chair of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999), 1989 (2011) and 2253 (2015) concerning Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals, groups, undertakings and entities addressed to the President of the Security Council,” United Nations, February 3, 2022, 15, https://undocs.org/S/2022/83. Al-Qaeda provided proof of life on April 5, 2022, when it released a video of Zawahiri referencing current events. In the video, Zawahiri praised Muskan Khan, an Indian Muslim woman who had defied a ban on wearing a hijab that February. An Indian court upheld the ban in March. The video did not provide information on Zawahiri’s whereabouts, though there are unverified reports he may be in Pakistan or Afghanistan.Kathy Gannon, “Al-Qaida leader circulates video, dispels rumor of his death,” Associated Press, April 6, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/ayman-al-zawahri-india-asia-islamabad-religion-0a86c9db2813f4258a01b146102628af.

On July 31, 2022, a CIA drone strike killed Zawahiri in Kabul’s Sherpoor area. There were no reported civilian casualties in the strike. It was the first U.S. drone strike in Afghanistan since the U.S. withdrawal in August 2021. Taliban spokesman Zabihullah Mujahid condemned the strike as a violation of “international principles.”Idrees Ali, “Al Qaeda leader Zawahiri killed in CIA drone strike in Afghanistan - U.S. officials,” Reuters, August 1, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/cia-carried-out-drone-strike-afghanistan-us-officials-say-2022-08-01/. According to U.S. President Joe Biden, Zawahiri had been staying in the house that had been targeted. The house reportedly belonged to a top aide to senior Taliban leader Sirajuddin Haqqani. Biden confirmed the strike on August 1, declaring Zawahiri “is no more.”Matthew Lee, Nomaan Merchant, Mike Balsamo, and James Laporta, “Biden: Drone strike on al-Qaida leader delivered ‘justice,’” Associated Press, August 1, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/ayman-al-zawahri-al-qaida-terrorism-biden-36e5f10256c9bc9972b252849eda91f2. According to a senior Biden official, the residence was a safe house operated by the Haqqani network and senior Haqqani network figures were aware of Zawahiri’s presence in Kabul. After the strike, Haqqani network members worked to conceal Zawahiri’s former presence at the house and moved Zawahiri’s wife, his daughter, and her children to another location. The official confirmed there were no casualties in the strike other than Zawahiri.“Background Press Call by a Senior Administration Official on a U.S. Counterterrorism Operation,” White House, August 1, 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/press-briefings/2022/08/01/background-press-call-by-a-senior-administration-official-on-a-u-s-counterterrorism-operation/.

Al-Qaeda has continued to feature Zawahiri in its propaganda. On February 12, 2023, al-Qaeda’s As-Sahab Media released a video featuring Zawahiri. Dated 2023, the video accused the United States, Great Britain, France, and Russia of leading a global campaign against Muslims. It featured clips of right-wing Israeli Security Minister Itamar Ben-Gvir, who joined the government in late 2022. Zawahiri declared Muslims in Israel and Palestine are “suffering today either under direct Israeli occupation of under the occupation of the clients of Israel.” He labeled Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas “brother spy” and claimed he is an Israeli ally. Zawahiri warned Israel seeks to “Judaize Palestine” and destroy the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. He called for an uprising by the people and to “confront every charlatan, traitor, and backstabber with this decree.” Zawahiri’s clips did not reference any time-specific events and it is inconclusive when those clips were filmed.How to Support the Palestinian Cause, As-Sahab Media, February 12, 2023.

Ali Khamenei is the Supreme Leader of Iran, making him the highest religious and political authority in the country.Akbar Ganji, “Who is Ali Khamenei?” Foreign Affairs, September/October 2013, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/139643/akbar-ganji/who-is-ali-khamenei. He became Supreme Leader in 1989 following his term as Iran’s president from 1981-1989.James Reynolds, “Profile: Iran’s ‘unremarkable’ supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei,” BBC News, August 4, 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14362281. In Foreign Affairs, Iranian journalist and dissident Akbar Ganki describes him as Iran’s “single most powerful figure,”Akbar Ganki, “The Latter-Day Sultan,” Foreign Affairs, November/December 2008, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/64606/akbar-ganji/the-latter-day-sultan. stating that “formally or not, the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government all operate under [Khamenei’s] absolute sovereignty.”Akbar Ganji, “Who is Ali Khamenei?” Foreign Affairs, September/October 2013, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/139643/akbar-ganji/who-is-ali-khamenei. In early December 2020, Khamenei reportedly handed authority to his son, Mojtaba Khamenei, amid growing health concerns.Darragh Roche, “Journalist Claims Iran's Supreme Leader Transfers Power to Son as Health Deteriorates,” Newsweek, December 5, 2020, https://www.newsweek.com/fakhrizadeh-iran-1552586. Iranian officials have denied that Khamenei’s health is declining.“Iranian official close to Khamenei's office says leader is in good health – Fars,” Reuters, December 7, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN28H113. Rumors of Khamenei’s failing health again circulated in September 2022 after Khamenei reportedly had bowel obstruction surgery.Farnaz Fassihi, “Iran’s Supreme Leader Cancels Public Appearances After Falling Ill,” New York Times, September https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/16/world/middleeast/irans-supreme-leader-ayatollah-ali-khamenei-ill.html.

Khamenei controls Iran’s military including its elite Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), responsible for defending the Islamic Republic against internal and external threats.Greg Bruno, Jayshree Bajoria, and Jonathan Masters, “Iran’s Revolutionary Guards,” Council on Foreign Relations, June 14, 2013, http://www.cfr.org/iran/irans-revolutionary-guards/p14324. According to Iran analyst Alireza Nader, Khamenei and the IRGC have formed a “symbiotic relationship that buttresses the Supreme Leader’s authorities and preserves the status quo.”Alireza Nader, “The Revolutionary Guards,” United States Institute of Peace, accessed March 24, 2015, http://iranprimer.usip.org/resource/revolutionary-guards. Khamenei’s control extends to the IRGC’s Quds Force, the IRGC’s external wing responsible for liaising with Iran’s global proxies including Hezbollah and Shiite militias in Iraq, Syria, and Yemen.“Treasury Targets Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, October 11, 2011, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1320.aspx. Khamenei has used the Quds Force to build and support relationships with violent international groups that oppose the U.S. and/or support Iran’s hardline Shiite policies. He has offered Iran’s support to essentially any group engaged in hostilities with Israel, which he calls a “cancerous tumor” that should be “cut off.”Thomas Erdbrink, “Ayatollah Khamenei says Iran will back ‘any nations, any groups’ fighting Israel,” Washington Post, February 3, 2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/iran-says-it-launched-satellite/2012/02/03/gIQARNuDmQ_story.html.

Iranian forces have also fought on behalf of Syrian President Bashar Assad in the country’s civil war. As early as June 2011, Khamenei pledged his support for Assad’s Alawite-dominated regime, declaring, “Wherever a movement is Islamic, populist, and anti-American, we support it.”Geneive Abdo, “How Iran Keeps Assad in Power in Syria,” Foreign Affairs, August 25, 2011, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/68230/geneive-abdo/how-iran-keeps-assad-in-power-in-syria. In 2012, Khamenei ordered the Quds Force to increase attacks on Western targets in retaliation for U.S. support of Syrian rebels.Con Coughlin, “Iran’s Supreme Leader Orders Fresh Terror Attacks on West,” Telegraph, August 22, 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iran/9490878/Irans-supreme-leader-orders-fresh-terror-attacks-on-West.html.

Khamenei directly influences Iranian elections through his control of Iran’s Guardian Council, the body responsible for overseeing the election process.“Profile: Ayatollah Ali Khamenei,” BBC News, June 17, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3018932.stm. In 2004, conservatives won 70 percent of the Iranian parliamentary elections after the Guardian Council disqualified thousands of more moderate candidates.“Profile: Ayatollah Ali Khamenei,” BBC News, June 17, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3018932.stm.

Islam and Islamism have been central tenets of Khamenei’s life. At age 13, Khamenei heard the anti-Shah fundamentalist cleric Navab Safavi speak at his school.“Biography of the Life of His Eminence Ayatollah Khamenei, Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran,” Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei, December 27, 2007, http://english.khamenei.ir//index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=57&Itemid=20. This started Khamenei down a path of radicalization and he began supporting the ideology of Safavi’s Fadayan-e Islam movement,Masoud Kazemzadeh, “Ayatollah Khameini’s Foreign Policy Orientation,” Comparative Strategy, November 8, 2013, 446, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2013.840208. which justified terrorism against the Shah’s government and its supporters. Khamenei went on to translate two books by Sayyid Qutb,Masoud Kazemzadeh, “Ayatollah Khameini’s Foreign Policy Orientation,” Comparative Strategy, November 8, 2013, 446, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2013.840208. the father of modern Islamism. In 1962, Khamenei became a disciple of the radical Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and joined Khomeini’s protests against the Shah.“Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenei Fast Facts,” CNN, July 8, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2012/12/30/world/meast/ayatollah-seyyed-ali-khamenei---fast-facts/index.html. Khamenei went on to hold leading roles in Khomeini’s Islamic Republic, including serving two terms as Iran’s president.

Khamenei subscribes to the ideology of Khomeinism, Khomeini’s philosophy focused on themes of Third World unity, liberation from the oppression of the West, and the embrace of state planning as a tool for social engineering. Khomeini framed the Islamic Revolution as not only a struggle against the Shah but also a fight against perceived Western domination.David E. Thaler, Alireza Nader, Shahram Chubin, Jerrold D. Green, Charlotte Lynch, Frederic Wehrey, “Mullahs, Guards and Bonyards. An Exploration of Iranian Leadership Dynamics,” National Defense Research Institute, p. 13, 2010, http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG878.pdf. He warned against the alleged dangers of foreign interference in Iranian affairs,Ervand Abrahamian, “Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic,” Cambridge University Press, 2008, 116. and called for resistance against foreign actors he believed were responsible for injustices against Iran.David E. Thaler, Alireza Nader, Shahram Chubin, Jerrold D. Green, Charlotte Lynch, Frederic Wehrey, “Mullahs, Guards and Bonyards. An Exploration of Iranian Leadership Dynamics,” National Defense Research Institute, p. 13, 2010, http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG878.pdf.

Khomeini’s 1970 book, Islamic Government: The Government of the Jurist,An English translation of the book by Dr. Hamid Algar is available online, accessed July 8, 2014: http://www.al-islam.org/islamic-government-governance-of-jurist-imam-khomeini. argued that Islam required political power to be placed in the hands of religious leaders. This doctrine of clerical political power, known in Farsi as “Guardianship of the Jurist” (velayat-e faqih), remains an essential tenet of Iran’s ruling order. Current Iranian law makes “belief and practice of velayat-e faqih” a prerequisite for membership in the IRGC.Charter of the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps, ratified by Iran’s legislature (Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami) on September 6, 1982. Article 34, accessed July 8, 2014, http://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/90595. Khomeini popularized the idea of theocratic rule by a single religious scholar, claiming near-dictatorial powers for himself. Upon Khomeini’s death in 1989, Khamenei became Khomeini’s spiritual successor.

Khamenei has cast Iran’s relationship with the West—and the U.S. in particular—as a battle between good and evil. Like Khomeini, Khamenei is paranoid of Iran’s relationship with the West, and believes the U.S. is a source of aggression that seeks Iran’s “submission and surrender.”Karim Sadjadpour, “Reading Khamenei: The World View of Iran’s Most Powerful Leader,” Carnegie Endowment, 2007, 14, http://carnegieendowment.org/files/sadjadpour_iran_final2.pdf. He sees Iran’s nuclear pursuit as a statement of Iran’s independence from Western (i.e. U.S.) hegemony.Karim Sadjadpour, “Reading Khamenei: The World View of Iran’s Most Powerful Leader,” Carnegie Endowment, 2007, 14, http://carnegieendowment.org/files/sadjadpour_iran_final2.pdf. Even as Iran negotiates with the U.S., Khamenei continues to call for “death to America.” The supreme leader describes the United States as a “bully” that “[takes] advantages of the weakness of Islamic countries,” while Iran fights for regional peace.Sam Wilkin and Babak Dehghanpisheh, “Iran’s top leader rejects U.S. ‘bullying’ in nuclear talks,” Reuters, March 21, 2015, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/03/21/uk-iran-nuclear-khamenei-idUKKBN0MH0GX20150321; “Leader’s Speech to the Residents of Qom,” The Office of the Supreme Leader Sayyid Ali Khamenei, January 8, 2007, http://www.leader.ir/langs/en/index.php?p=bayanat&id=3587.

In October 2014, Khamenei accused the U.S. and the U.K. of creating ISIS as a tool to fight Iran and “create insecurity” in the region.Michelle Moghtader, “Khamenei Blames United States, ‘Wicked’ Britain, for Creating Islamic State,” Reuters, October 13, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/13/us-mideast-crisis-khamenei-idUSKCN0I217220141013; “Khamenei calls ‘Death to America’ as Kerry hails progress on nuke deal,” Times of Israel, March 21, 2015, http://www.timesofisrael.com/khamenei-calls-death-to-america-as-kerry-hails-progress-on-nuke-deal/. Consequently, Khamenei believes Islam is in a “righteous” fight against the U.S., “the Great Satan,” which controls “the avaricious arrogant policies of the satans of the world.”Masoud Kazemzadeh, “Ayatollah Khameini’s Foreign Policy Orientation,” Comparative Strategy, November 8, 2013, 450, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01495933.2013.840208.

Part of the enduring legacy of Khamenei’s predecessor is Khomeini’s 1989 fatwa calling for the death of British author Salman Rushdie on charges of insulting Islam with his novel The Satanic Verses. Though former Iranian president Mohammad Khatami rebuked the Rushdie fatwa in 1998, Khamenei clarified in 2005 that the death sentence remained in effect. When the United Kingdom knighted Rushdie in 2007, Pakistani radicals—including members of the government—clamored for his death. In February 2016, 40 Iranian state-run media outlets offered a $600,000 joint reward for Rushdie’s murder.Samuel Osborne, “Salman Rushdie: Iranian state media renew fatwa on Satanic Verses author with $600,000 bounty,” Independent (London), February 21, 2016, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/salman-rushdie-iranian-state-media-renew-fatwa-on-satanic-verses-author-with-600-000-bounty-a6887141.html; “Day of Pakistan Rushdie protests,” BBC News, June 22, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6229506.stm. In October 2022, the United States levied sanctions on the 15 Khordad Foundation, an Iranian charity under the auspices of Iran’s supreme leader that has maintained a multi-million-dollar reward for Rushdie’s death since 1989. In 2012, the foundation raised its reward to $3.3 million and promised the full sum would be immediately paid to whoever kills Rushdie.“Treasury Sanctions Iranian Foundation Behind Bounty on Salman Rushdie,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, October 28, 2022, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy1059.

Questions about Khamenei’s health have followed him for several years. In 2015, he was allegedly hospitalized with stage four prostate cancer.“Iran supreme leader said to be in critical condition,” Times of Israel, March 5, 2015, http://www.timesofisrael.com/iran-supreme-leader-said-to-be-in-critical-condition/. On December 5, 2020, Iranian journalist Momahad Ahwaze claimed on Twitter that Khamenei had transferred authority to his son, Mojtaba Khamenei, amid growing health concerns. According to Ahwaze, Khamenei canceled a December 4 meeting with Iranian President Hassan Rouhani because of his deteriorating health. Ahwaze claimed Khamenei’s conditioned worsened overnight, leading to the transfer of power. He did not state specifics of Khamenei’s illness, but various media reports suggested the supreme leader may have prostate cancer.Darragh Roche, “Journalist Claims Iran's Supreme Leader Transfers Power to Son as Health Deteriorates,” Newsweek, December 5, 2020, https://www.newsweek.com/fakhrizadeh-iran-1552586. On December 7 on Twitter, Iranian official Mehdi Fazaeli denied rumors of Khamenei’s declining health and claimed Khamenei was “busy vigorously carrying out his plan according to his routine.”“Iranian official close to Khamenei's office says leader is in good health – Fars,” Reuters, December 7, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN28H113. If Khamenei dies while still in power, a transfer of authority to his son would be temporary as Iran’s Assembly of Experts is constitutionally charged with selecting the supreme leader’s permanent successor.Yonah Jeremy Bob, If Iran’s Khamenei must step down, who will replace him?,” Jerusalem Post, December 6, 2020, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/if-irans-khamenei-must-step-down-who-will-replace-him-651279.

Media reports circulated again in September 2022 of Khamenei’s failing health. On September 6, Khamenei’s office cancelled all public appearances. Khamenei reportedly had surgery in the first half of that month for bowel obstruction after suffering extreme stomach pains and high fever. According to one source cited by the New York Times, Khamenei was in critical condition at one point, but he was showing signs of improvement.Farnaz Fassihi, “Iran’s Supreme Leader Cancels Public Appearances After Falling Ill,” New York Times, September https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/16/world/middleeast/irans-supreme-leader-ayatollah-ali-khamenei-ill.html. Despite the reports, Khamenei made public appearances on September 17 and September 21. Sources close to Khamenei denied rumors of the ayatollah’s failing health.“Iran’s supreme leader appears at religious event, following period of absence ,” Reuters, September 17, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-supreme-leader-appears-religious-event-following-period-absence-2022-09-17/; “Iran’s Khamenei gives second speech after report of illness,” Reuters, September 21, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-khamenei-gives-second-televised-speech-after-report-illness-2022-09-21/.

Khamenei’s health raised concerns about who would become the next supreme leader. In June 2021, Ebrahim Raisi won Iran’s presidential elections, confirming his status as a potential successor to Khamenei.Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/; Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline Iranian cleric consolidates leadership position,” Reuters, March 12, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-judiciary-raisi-newsmaker/hardline-iranian-cleric-consolidates-leadership-position-idUSKBN1QT1GO; “Iran election: Hardliner Raisi will become president,” BBC News, June 20, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57537027. Khamenei had previously appointed Raisi, in 2016, as head of Astan Qods Razavi, which oversees a multibillion-dollar religious foundation that manages donations to the Iman Reza Shrine in the city of Mashhad. The appointment to the high-profile position raised speculation in Iran that Khamenei favored Raisi as the shrine is Iran’s holiest Shiite pilgrimage site and a steady source of revenue for the country.Golnaz Esfandiari, “In Iran, Emerging Hard-Liner Stakes Future On Unseating Rohani,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, April 6, 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-presidential-election-candidate-hard-liner-ebrahim-raisi/28414689.html; Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline cleric Raisi to take on Rouhani in Iran’s presidential election,” Reuters, April 9, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-elections-raisi-idUSKBN17B0DZ; Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/. In March 2019, Khamenei appointed Raisi head of Iran’s judiciary. Less than a week later, Raisi was elected deputy chief of the Assembly of Experts.Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline Iranian cleric consolidates leadership position,” Reuters, March 12, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-judiciary-raisi-newsmaker/hardline-iranian-cleric-consolidates-leadership-position-idUSKBN1QT1GO; “Ebrahim Raeesi Was Officially Appointed as the Chief of Iran’s Judiciary,” Iran International, March 7, 2019, https://iranintl.com/en/iran/ebrahim-raeesi-was-officially-appointed-chief-iran%E2%80%99s-judiciary. The Iranian regime favored Raisi in the June 2021 presidential elections, which observers speculated were designed to give Raisi a victory.“Iranians vote in election all but guaranteed to deliver an ultra-conservative president,” CNN, June 18, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/06/18/middleeast/iran-election-voting-intl/index.html.

Protests against the Iranian regime spread around Iran in 2022. That May, protests erupted after the government canceled billions of dollars in food import subsidies and overnight doubled and tripled prices for essential food items such as bread and cooking oil. Khamenei blamed the protests on Iran’s enemies, who sought to sow unrest to collapse the Iranian government.“Iran's Khamenei In Speech Tries To Defend His Embattled Rule,” Iran International, June 4, 2022, https://www.iranintl.com/en/202206046932. In September 2022, the IRGC and the Basij joined in violently suppressing protests that erupted after the September 16 death of Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old Kurdish woman who died in custody after being detained by Tehran’s morality police earlier in the month for not wearing a hijab properly. Her death sparked protests across Iran and violent clashes between protesters and the IRGC.Arsalan Shahla, “Iran Launches Artillery Against Militants in Northern Iraq,” September 24, 2022, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-09-24/iran-launches-artillery-against-militants-in-northern-iraq?leadSource=uverify%20wall; “Exclusive: IRGC Commanders’ Families Placed in Tehran ‘Safe House,” Iran Wire, September 26, 2022, https://iranwire.com/en/iran/107958-exclusive-irgc-commanders-families-placed-in-tehran-safe-house/; “IRGC will not hesitate to target origin of any anti-Iran operation wherever it may be: General,” Press TV, September 27, 2022, https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2022/09/27/689915/IRGC-will-not-hesitate-target-origin-any-anti-Iran-operation-General; Caitlin McFall, “The Guardian Patrol sent Amini to a detention center to undergo re-education when they claimed she was not wearing a hijab properly. She died three days later.,” Fox News, September 24, 2022, https://www.foxnews.com/world/protestors-clash-revolutionary-guard-northern-iran-torch-irgc-base-reports; “Iran’s Guards Break Their Silence, Warn Protesters,” Iran International, September 22, 2022, https://www.iranintl.com/en/202209229946. On October 3, Khamenei made his first statement about the protests, blaming the United States, Israel, and Iranian agitators.“Leader: Riots engineered by U.S., Israel, and treasonous Iranians abroad,” Tehran Times, October 3, 2022, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/477264/Leader-Riots-engineered-by-U-S-Israel-and-treasonous-Iranians; “Iran’s supreme leader breaks silence on protests, blames US,” Associated Press, October 3, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/iran-israel-middle-east-dubai-united-arab-emirates-25c14800b5b145d850fe3181eb062664.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a largescale attack on Israel, killing 1,200 and taking more than 240 hostages.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; Lauren Frayer, “Israel revises down its death toll from the Oct. 7 Hamas attacks to about 1,200,” NPR, November 11, 2023, https://www.npr.org/2023/11/11/1212458974/israel-revises-death-toll-hamas-attacks-oct-7; Ibrahim Dahman and Abeer Salman, “Hamas announces ‘Al-Aqsa Storm,’ claims to have fired 5,000 rockets,” CNN, October 7, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/al-aqsa-storm-militants-infiltrate-israel-after-gaza-rockets-10-07-intl-hnk/h_644aa5e5d02286051f5cc307e229566a. Iranian officials, including Raisi, immediately praised Hamas on the success of the attack.Giselle Ruhiyyih Ewing, “Iran praises Hamas as attack reverberates around Middle East,” Politico, October 7, 2023, https://www.politico.com/news/2023/10/07/iran-praises-hamas-attack-israel-middle-east-00120491. Iran denied a role in the attack and the U.S. government said initially it had not seen evidence of direct Iranian involvement. The Wall Street Journal reported several senior Hamas and Hezbollah sources confirmed the participation of IRGC officials in planning the attack in meetings in Beirut in August 2023. According to those officials, the IRGC had provided a greenlight for the attack in September.Summer Said, Benoit Faucon, and Stephen Kalin, “Iran Helped Plot Attack on Israel Over Several Weeks,” Wall Street Journal, October 8, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/iran-israel-hamas-strike-planning-bbe07b25. On November 1, Khamenei called on all Muslim states to end exports of oil, food, and goods to Israel to pressure it to end its military campaign in Gaza. Khamenei blamed U.S. support for Israel surviving more than a week after the attack.“Iran’s Khamenei Calls For Blockade Of Israel,” Iran International, November 1, 2024, https://www.iranintl.com/en/202311017715.

On November 5, Iranian media reported that Haniyeh and Khamenei had met in recent days to discuss the situation in Gaza. Khamenei reiterated Iran’s support for the Palestinians. The specific date of the meeting was not reported.“Iranian state media confirm meeting between Khamenei, Hamas’ Haniyeh in Tehran,” Reuters, November 5, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iranian-state-media-confirms-meeting-between-khamenei-hamas-haniyeh-tehran-2023-11-05/.

In his public statements and social media posts, Khamenei repeatedly praised Hamas’s October 7 attack on Israel. In February 2024, Facebook and Instagram parent company Meta suspended Khamenei’s accounts for repeatedly violating the company’s Dangerous Organizations and Individuals policy.Agence France-Presse, “Meta Removes Instagram, Facebook Accounts of Iran's Khamenei,” Voice of America, February 8, 2024, https://www.voanews.com/a/meta-removes-instagram-facebook-accounts-of-iran-s-khamenei/7480054.html.

On April 1, 2024, Israel launched a strike on an Iranian consulate in Damascus, Syria. The strike killed seven IRGC commanders, including Brigadier General Mohammad Reza Zahedi, the most senior Iranian official killed since the January 2020 death of Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani in a U.S. airstrike. Zahedi oversaw the IRGC’s ground forces and their operations. He was also allegedly pivotal in the supply of Iranian-made missiles to Hezbollah.“Iran says Israel bombs its embassy in Syria, kills commanders,” Reuters, April 2, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-bombs-iran-embassy-syria-iranian-commanders-among-dead-2024-04-01/; Akhtar Mohammad Makoii, “Mohammad Reza Zahedi: who was the Iranian commander killed in an Israeli strike in Syria?,” Guardian  (London), April 2, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/02/mohammad-reza-zahedi-who-was-the-iranian-commander-killed-in-an-israeli-strike-in-syria; Faris Tanyos, Cara Tabachnick, and Tucker Reals, “Israel says Iran's missile and drone attack largely thwarted, with ‘very little damage’ caused,” CBS News, April 14, 2024, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/iran-launches-drone-attack-toward-israel-idf-says/. In response, Khamenei pledged on April 10 that Israel would be “punished.”“Khamenei says Israel ‘must be punished’ for Syria embassy attack,” Reuters, April 10, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-khamenei-says-israel-must-be-punished-syria-embassy-attack-2024-04-10/. On April 13, an IRGC helicopter boarded the Portuguese-flagged MCS Aries near the Strait of Hormuz and IRGC forces seized the vessel. According to news reports, MSC leases the Aries from Gortal Shipping, an affiliate of Zodiac Maritime, which is partly owned by Israeli businessman Eyal Ofer. Israeli Foreign Minister Israel Katz accuses Iran of piracy.“Iran says MSC Aries vessel seized for ‘violating maritime laws,’” Reuters, April 15, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-says-msc-aries-vessel-seized-violating-maritime-laws-2024-04-15/. Late on April 13, Iran launched its first-ever direct attack on Israel, sending more than 300 drones and rockets toward the Jewish state. Iranian proxies in Yemen and Iraq also fired on Israel. Israeli, U.S., U.K., and regional forces shot down 99 percent of the projectiles. The projectiles that did strike Israel caused minor damage to a military base and wounded a child in southern Israel.“Iran says Israel bombs its embassy in Syria, kills commanders,” Reuters, April 2, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-bombs-iran-embassy-syria-iranian-commanders-among-dead-2024-04-01/; Akhtar Mohammad Makoii, “Mohammad Reza Zahedi: who was the Iranian commander killed in an Israeli strike in Syria?,” Guardian  (London), April 2, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/apr/02/mohammad-reza-zahedi-who-was-the-iranian-commander-killed-in-an-israeli-strike-in-syria; “Khamenei says Israel ‘must be punished’ for Syria embassy attack,” Reuters, April 10, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-khamenei-says-israel-must-be-punished-syria-embassy-attack-2024-04-10/; “Iran says MSC Aries vessel seized for 'violating maritime laws,’” Reuters, April 15, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-says-msc-aries-vessel-seized-violating-maritime-laws-2024-04-15/; “Defense of Israel Activities Update,” U.S. Central Command, April 14, 2024, https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3740744/defense-of-israel-activities-update/; Cassandra Vinograd and Natan Odenheimer, “A 7-Year-Old Girl Is the Lone Serious Casualty of Iran’s Barrage,” New York Times, April 14, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/14/world/middleeast/israel-iran-negev-bedouin.html#:~:text=Amina%20al%2DHasoni%2C%207%2C,Bedouins%20in%20the%20Negev%20desert. Following the attack, Khamenei published a statement in Hebrew on X, formerly Twitter, declaring that Jerusalem would “be in the hands of the Muslims, and the Muslim world will celebrate the liberation of Palestine.”“Khamenei.ir,” Twitter post, April 14, 2024, 2:23 p.m., https://twitter.com/khamenei_ir/status/1779576160088674681.

On April 19, 2024, Israel launched a drone strike against a military base in Isfahan, Iran. Iranian officials claimed explosions heard around Isfahan resulted from Iranian air defenses striking the drones. The Iranian regime referred to the incident as an attack by “infiltrators.”Raja Abdulrahim, “Israel reportedly strikes an air defense site in Syria,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news/israel-reportedly-strikes-an-air-defense-site-in-syria; “Live Updates: Muted Reactions to Israeli Strikes on Iran Hint at De-Escalation,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news. At the same time as the strike on Iran, Israel sent missiles toward a Syrian air defense site, causing physical damage.Raja Abdulrahim, “Israel reportedly strikes an air defense site in Syria,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news/israel-reportedly-strikes-an-air-defense-site-in-syria; “Live Updates: Muted Reactions to Israeli Strikes on Iran Hint at De-Escalation,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news. In an April 21 meeting with Iranian military leaders, Khamenei thanked Iran’s armed forces for the April 13 attack on Israel. He instructed the military leaders to learn Israel’s tactics. Khamenei further dismissed reports that Israel shot down 99 percent of the projectiles as “secondary” to the “emergence of the Iranian nation and Iranian military’s will in an important international arena.”Agencies and Times of Israel staff, “Iran’s Khamenei tells troops to ‘learn enemy’s tactics’ after tit-for-tat attacks,” Times of Israel, April 21, 2024, https://www.timesofisrael.com/irans-khamenei-tells-troops-to-learn-enemys-tactics-after-tit-for-tat-attacks/.

Abubakar Shekau was the emir of Boko Haram and a U.S.-designated terrorist.“Terrorist Designations of Boko Haram Commander Abubakar Shekau, Khalid al-Barnawi and Abubakar Adam Kambar,” United States Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism and Countering Violent Extremism, June 21, 2012, https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/266615.htm. The Nigerian terror group pledged allegiance to ISIS under Shekau in March 2015.Agence France-Presse, “IS welcomes Boko Haram allegiance: tape,” Yahoo News, March 12, 2015, http://news.yahoo.com/accepts-allegiance-nigeria-jihadists-boko-haram-201513146.html. On August 3, 2016, ISIS announced that militant Abu Musab al-Barnawi had assumed leadership of Boko Haram.“Boko Haram in Nigeria: Abu Musab al-Barnawi named as new leader,” BBC News, August 3, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36963711. Later that day, Shekau released an audio statement denying ISIS’s claim, and referred to the announcement as a coup.Daveed Gartenstein-Ross and Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s Doomed Marriage to the Islamic State,” War on the Rocks, August 26, 2016, https://warontherocks.com/2016/08/boko-harams-doomed-marriage-to-the-islamic-state/; Maggie Fick, “Boko Haram dispute with Isis bursts into the open,” Financial Times, August 5, 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/bed19ac2-5a61-11e6-8d05-4eaa66292c32. Following the announcement, the group split into two factions— a Shekau-led Boko Haram and a Barnawi-headed Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP). Shekau did not renounced his pledge to ISIS and in March 2017 began including ISIS logos in official Boko Haram videos.Omar Mahmood and Ndubuisi Christian Ani, “Fractional Dynamics within Boko Haram,” Institute for Security Studies,” July 2018, p. 15, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2018-07-06-research-report-2.pdf. Shekau was reported as seriously wounded or killed in a confrontation with ISWAP fighters in May 2021.Anna Pujol-Mazzini, “Boko Haram leader behind kidnapping of 300 girls seriously injured after trying to blow himself up,” Telegraph (London), May 21, 2021, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/05/21/boko-haram-leader-injured-possibly-dead-attempt-blow-evade-capture/; “Nigeria’s military investigates reports of Boko Haram leader’s death,” Reuters, May 21, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigerias-military-investigates-reports-boko-haram-leaders-death-2021-05-21/; “Nigeria’s Boko Haram leader ‘wounded’ in clashes – Reports,” Africa News, May 21, 2021, https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/20/nigeria-s-boko-haram-leader-wounded-in-clashes-reports/. On June 7, ISWAP released an audio recording confirming Shekau was killed in a clash between Boko Haram and ISWAP forces in Borno on May 18.“ISWAP militant group says Nigeria’s Boko Haram leader is dead,” Reuters, June 7, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/islamic-state-west-african-province-says-nigerias-boko-haram-leader-is-dead-2021-06-06/?utm_source=iterable&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=2430856_.

Shekau was reportedly born in a remote village in Yobe State, Nigeria.Adam Nossiter, “A Jihadist’s Face Taunts Nigeria From the Shadows,” New York Times, May 18, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/19/world/africa/a-jihadists-face-taunts-nigeria-from-the-shadows.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Aw%2C%7B%222%22%3A%22RI%3A16%22%7D; Emeka Okereke, "From Obscurity to Global Visibility: Periscoping Abubakar Shekau," Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 6, no. 10 (2014): 17, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26351292. As a young boy he studied the Quran at an Islamic school in Maiduguri, the capital city of Borno State.Emeka Okereke, "From Obscurity to Global Visibility: Periscoping Abubakar Shekau," Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 6, no. 10 (2014): 17, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26351292. After 11 years of study, Shekau was reportedly expelled due to his militant and aggressive behavior.Adam Nossiter, “A Jihadist’s Face Taunts Nigeria From the Shadows,” New York Times, May 18, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/19/world/africa/a-jihadists-face-taunts-nigeria-from-the-shadows.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Aw%2C%7B%222%22%3A%22RI%3A16%22%7D; Max Siollun, “Boko Haram’s Terrorist Behind the Curtain,” Foreign Policy, April 26, 2016, https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/04/26/mystery-swirls-around-a-most-dangerous-terrorist-nigeria-boko-haram/. He continued his Islamic studies and earned a degree from the Borno State College of Legal and Islamic Studies in 2004.“Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insurgency,” International Crisis Group, April 3, 2014, p. 19,  https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/curbing-violence-in-nigeria-II-the-boko-haram-insurgency.pdf; Emeka Okereke, "From Obscurity to Global Visibility: Periscoping Abubakar Shekau," Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 6, no. 10 (2014): 17, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26351292. Shekau subsequently worked with Mohammed Yusuf, an Islamic preacher who went on to found and lead Boko Haram. Shekau shared Yusuf’s commitment to restructuring society in accordance with sharia law and was named as his successor after Yusuf was killed by Nigerian security forces in July 2009.Emeka Okereke, "From Obscurity to Global Visibility: Periscoping Abubakar Shekau," Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 6, no. 10 (2014): 18, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26351292; Adam Nossiter, “A Jihadist’s Face Taunts Nigeria From the Shadows,” New York Times, May 18, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/19/world/africa/a-jihadists-face-taunts-nigeria-from-the-shadows.html?module=Search&mabReward=relbias%3Aw%2C%7B%222%22%3A%22RI%3A16%22%7D.

Shekau transformed Boko Haram into a more radical and violent organization.“Nigeria's Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau in profile,” BBC News, May 9, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18020349. Under Shekau’s leadership, the terror group routinely abducted, enslaved, and raped civilians, and reportedly killed more than 15,000 people.Ruth Maclean and Isaac Abrak, “Isis tries to impose new leader on Boko Haram in Nigeria,” Guardian (London), August 5, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/05/isis-tries-to-impose-new-leader-on-boko-haram-in-nigeria; Phil Stewart, “Boko Haram fracturing over Islamic State ties, U.S. general warns,” Reuters, June 22, 2016, accessed August 9, 2018, https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN0Z80K6. Boko Haram received widespread media attention in April 2014 when the group kidnapped more than 200 school girls from a boarding school in Chibok, Nigeria.“Chibok abductions in Nigeria: ‘More than 230 seized,’” BBC News, April 21, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27101714. One month later, Shekau appeared in a Boko Haram video in which he declared his intention to sell the school girls into slavery.“Nigeria's Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau in profile,” BBC News, May 9, 2014, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18020349; Aminu Abubakar and Josh Levs, “'I will sell them,' Boko Haram leader says of kidnapped Nigerian girls,” CNN, May 6, 2014, http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/05/world/africa/nigeria-abducted-girls/.

In August 2015, the Chadian government claimed Shekau was replaced as Boko Haram’s leader by an individual named Mahamat Daoud.“Nigeria’s Boko Haram militants ‘have new leader,’” BBC News, August 12, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33889378; Rick Gladstone, “Nigeria: Boko Haram Is Said To Have A New Leader,” New York Times, August 12, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/13/world/africa/nigeria-boko-haram-is-said-to-have-a-new-leader.html. Shortly thereafter, Shekau released an audio recording in which he contradicted the government’s claim and asserted that the group’s leadership had not changed.“Shekau ‘still in charge’ of Nigeria’s Boko Haram,” BBC News, August 16, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33952928. In the following seven months, there was no video footage of Shekau which prompted speculation that Shekau had been killed. Shekau quelled that rumor when he appeared in a Boko Haram video in March 2016.Ludovica Iaccino, “Nigeria: Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau appears in new video after months of silence,” International Business Times, March 24, 2016, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/nigeria-boko-haram-leader-abubakar-shekau-appears-new-video-after-months-silence-1551438. It is possible that Boko Haram intentionally manufactured at least some of the confusion surrounding the group and its leader for strategic purposes. According to a Reuters report, it was likely that Shekau had a number of body doubles and that other Boko Haram commanders are operating under Shekau’s name.Tim Cocks, “Boko Haram ‘leader’ killed repeatedly, continues to threaten Nigeria,” Reuters, September 26, 2014, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/09/26/uk-nigeria-bokoharam-idUKKCN0HL0BL20140926.

Shekau’s pledge of allegiance to ISIS in March 2015 caused tension within Boko Haram’s ranks.“Hearing to Consider the Nominations of: Lieutenant General Thomas D. Waldhauser, USMC, to be General and Commander, United States Africa Command; and Lieutenant General Joseph L. Lengyel, Ang, to be General and Chief of the National Guard Bureau,” Committee on Armed Services, June 21, 2016, 64-65, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/16-62_06-21-16.pdf. According to U.S. Marine Lieutenant General Thomas Waldhauser, Shekau did not obey ISIS’s orders to stop attacking fellow Muslims, and to cease using children as suicide bombers.“Hearing to Consider the Nominations of: Lieutenant General Thomas D. Waldhauser, USMC, to be General and Commander, United States Africa Command; and Lieutenant General Joseph L. Lengyel, Ang, to be General and Chief of the National Guard Bureau,” Committee on Armed Services, June 21, 2016, 64-65, http://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/16-62_06-21-16.pdf. In early August 2016, Boko Haram’s third-in-command Mamman Nur allegedly reported Shekau to ISIS leadership for “killing [Shekau’s] own members, particularly commanders…just because they [question] his attacks on mosques and markets.”Ruth Maclean and Isaac Abrak, “Isis tries to impose new leader on Boko Haram in Nigeria,” Guardian (London), August 5, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/05/isis-tries-to-impose-new-leader-on-boko-haram-in-nigeria. After ISIS named Barnawi the new Boko Haram leader in early August 2016, Barnawi claimed that the group would cease attacks on mosques and markets and would instead focus on targeting churches and murdering Christians.“قطـع طريـق إمـداد الرافضـة إلـى معسـكر القيارة,” al-Naba, August 2, 2016, 8, https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/the-islamic-state-e2809cal-nabacc84_-newsletter-4122.pdf; Ludovica Iaccino, “Boko Haram splits as Abubakar Shekau and Abu Musab al-Barnawi fight for leadership,” International Business Times, August 4, 2016, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/boko-haram-splits-abubakar-shekau-abu-musab-al-barnawi-fight-leadership-1574271.

On August 23, 2016, the Nigerian military announced that Shekau had been “fatally wounded” by an August 19 airstrike in Borno State.Adam Withnall, “Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau ‘fatally wounded in army air strike’,” Independent (London), August 23, 2016, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/boko-haram-leader-abubakar-shekau-fatally-wounded-in-nigerian-army-air-strike-a7204676.html; “Boko Haram crisis: Nigeria air strike ‘kills commanders’,” BBC News, August 23, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-37163949. Though media outlets initially took the announcement to mean that Shekau had been killed in the airstrike,Nigerian Army, Twitter post, August 22, 2016, 11:07 p.m., https://twitter.com/HQNigerianArmy/status/767921120754491392; Adam Withnall, “Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau ‘fatally wounded in army air strike’,” Independent (London), August 23, 2016, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/boko-haram-leader-abubakar-shekau-fatally-wounded-in-nigerian-army-air-strike-a7204676.html; “Boko Haram crisis: Nigeria air strike ‘kills commanders’,” BBC News, August 23, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-37163949. military spokesman Colonel Sani Usman later clarified that Shekau had merely been injured.Dionne Searcey, “Boko Haram Leader Is Wounded in Airstrike, Nigeria’s Military Says,” New York Times, August 23, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/24/world/africa/boko-haram-abubakar-shekau-airstrike.html. Once recovered, Shekau later appeared in a number of videos and reportedly continued to direct attacks against Muslim civilians.Chijioke Jannah, “Shekau reportedly ill, reveals why Boko Haram is losing ground against Nigerian govt,” Daily Post, July 25, 2018, http://dailypost.ng/2018/07/25/shekau-reportedly-ill-reveals-boko-haram-losing-grounds-nigerian-govt-video/; Omar Mahmood and Ndubuisi Christian Ani, “Fractional Dynamics within Boko Haram,” Institute for Security Studies,” July 2018, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2018-07-06-research-report-2.pdf.

Despite repeated claims from the Nigerian government and military that Shekau had been killed, on June 29, 2017, Shekau released a new video declaring that there was no room for Christians to live with Muslims in the country as equals.Stoyan Zaimov, “Boko Haram Leader Resurfaces in Video, Says There Is No Room for Christians,” Christian Post, June 29, 2017, https://www.christianpost.com/news/boko-haram-leader-resurfaces-in-video-says-there-is-no-room-for-christians.html. A few months later on January 2, 2018, Shekau released a video message claiming responsibility for a number of attacks in northeast Nigeria, including Maiduguri, Gamboru, and Damboa. The attacks occurred during the Christmas season, often targeting convoys of Nigerian soldiers and crowded markets across northeast Nigeria.“Shekau appears in video amid surge in Boko Haram attacks,” Gulf Times, January 2, 2018, https://www.gulf-times.com/story/576826/Shekau-appears-in-video-amid-surge-in-Boko-Haram-a.

On February 15, 2018, the Nigerian army offered a three million Naira reward for information leading to the capture of Shekau.Tonye Bakare, “Nigerian Army places N3m bounty on Abubakar Shekau,” Guardian (Nigeria), February 15, 2018, https://guardian.ng/news/nigerian-army-places-n3m-bounty-on-abubakar-shekau/. On March 3, 2020, the U.S. Department of State’s Rewards for Justice Program, offered a $7 million reward for information leading to the capture of Shekau.“Wanted Information that brings to justice…Abubakr Shekau,” U.S. Department of State, March 3, 2020, https://rewardsforjustice.net/english/abubakar_shekau.html.

On December 11, 2020, approximately 300 boys were kidnapped from their school in Kankara, Katsina state in northeast Nigeria. Two days later, Shekau released an audio clip in which he claimed responsibility for the attack.Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s Pan-Nigerian Affiliate System after the Kankara Kidnapping: A Microcosm of Islamic State’s ‘External Provinces,’” Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor 19, no. 1, January 15, 2021, https://jamestown.org/program/boko-harams-pan-nigerian-affiliate-system-after-the-kankara-kidnapping-a-microcosm-of-islamic-states-external-provinces/. A video later showed one of the boys stating that they were held by “the gang of Abu Shekau.”Nigeria School Attack: Hundreds of Boys Return Home After Kidnap Ordeal,” BBC News, December 18, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55364394. On December 17, Shekau again claimed responsibility for the kidnapping in a video posted to Telegram.Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s Pan-Nigerian Affiliate System after the Kankara Kidnapping: A Microcosm of Islamic State’s ‘External Provinces,’” Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor 19, no. 1, January 15, 2021, https://jamestown.org/program/boko-harams-pan-nigerian-affiliate-system-after-the-kankara-kidnapping-a-microcosm-of-islamic-states-external-provinces/. However, analysts believe that the actual kidnappers were likely outside of Shekau’s direct chain of command and were merely bandits who pledged loyalty to Boko Haram.Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s Pan-Nigerian Affiliate System after the Kankara Kidnapping: A Microcosm of Islamic State’s ‘External Provinces,’” Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor 19, no. 1, January 15, 2021, https://jamestown.org/program/boko-harams-pan-nigerian-affiliate-system-after-the-kankara-kidnapping-a-microcosm-of-islamic-states-external-provinces/.

On May 18, 2021, fighters from Boko Haram splinter group ISWAP surrounded Shekau in Nigeria’s Borno State. Shekau reportedly detonated a bomb to evade capture. Some reports claimed Shekau died in the explosions, while other local intelligence sources claimed Shekau was seriously injured but escaped with a handful of Boko Haram fighters.Anna Pujol-Mazzini, “Boko Haram leader behind kidnapping of 300 girls seriously injured after trying to blow himself up,” Telegraph (London), May 21, 2021, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/05/21/boko-haram-leader-injured-possibly-dead-attempt-blow-evade-capture/; “Nigeria’s military investigates reports of Boko Haram leader’s death,” Reuters, May 21, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigerias-military-investigates-reports-boko-haram-leaders-death-2021-05-21/; “Nigeria’s Boko Haram leader ‘wounded’ in clashes – Reports,” Africa News, May 21, 2021, https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/20/nigeria-s-boko-haram-leader-wounded-in-clashes-reports/. An audio recording from Shekau released on May 18 elaborated on his allegiance to ISIS and his belief in the source of the division between Boko Haram and ISWAP. Shekau blamed betrayers who sought to “deceive” his followers. Shekau said he did not rebel against ISIS or its leader and blamed the rift with ISWAP on others who sought to sow division and refused to relay messages to ISIS’s leadership. Shekau also reiterated his beliefs allowing the consumption of drugs and soft drinks while opposing Western education.Murtala Abdullahi, “Shekau’s Last Message Throws Light On Links With Global Terror Groups, ISWAP Offensive,” HumAngle, May 26, 2021, https://humangle.ng/shekaus-last-message-throws-light-on-links-with-global-terror-groups-iswap-offensive/; Anna Pujol-Mazzini, “Boko Haram leader behind kidnapping of 300 girls seriously injured after trying to blow himself up,” Telegraph (London), May 21, 2021, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2021/05/21/boko-haram-leader-injured-possibly-dead-attempt-blow-evade-capture/; “Nigeria’s military investigates reports of Boko Haram leader’s death,” Reuters, May 21, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigerias-military-investigates-reports-boko-haram-leaders-death-2021-05-21/; “Nigeria’s Boko Haram leader ‘wounded’ in clashes – Reports,” Africa News, May 21, 2021, https://www.africanews.com/2021/05/20/nigeria-s-boko-haram-leader-wounded-in-clashes-reports/; “ISWAP militant group says Nigeria’s Boko Haram leader is dead,” Reuters, June 7, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/islamic-state-west-african-province-says-nigerias-boko-haram-leader-is-dead-2021-06-06.

On June 7, ISWAP released an audio recording confirming Shekau was killed in the May 18 blast. A Nigerian intelligence report, as well as Boko Haram researchers, also confirmed Shekau’s death.“ISWAP militant group says Nigeria’s Boko Haram leader is dead,” Reuters, June 7, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/islamic-state-west-african-province-says-nigerias-boko-haram-leader-is-dead-2021-06-06/?utm_source=iterable&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=2430856_. ISIS leader Abu Ibrahim al-Hashimi al-Quraishi allegedly directly ordered Shekau’s death because of his continued indiscriminate targeting of “believers.”Jason Burke, “Boko Haram leader killed on direct orders of Islamic State,” Guardian (London), June 7, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/07/boko-haram-leader-abubakar-shekau-killed-on-direct-orders-of-islamic-state.

Hassan Nasrallah is the secretary-general of the Shiite terrorist group Hezbollah, and an important figure in Lebanese politics.Guy Raz, “Hassan Nasrallah: Mideast Man of the Minute,” National Public Radio, July 18, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5566717. Although Nasrallah does not hold official office in Lebanon, terrorism expert Walid Phares asserted, “[Nasrallah is] seen as a messianic figure, much higher than any official in Lebanon.”Eben Kaplan, “Profile: Hassan Nasrallah,” Council on Foreign Relations, August 11, 2010, http://www.cfr.org/lebanon/profile-hassan-nasrallah/p11132. According to the Council on Foreign Relations, Nasrallah has shaped Hezbollah into the dominant political power in Lebanon and is the “driving force” behind the group’s military operations.​Eben Kaplan, “Profile: Hassan Nasrallah,” Council on Foreign Relations, August 11, 2010, http://www.cfr.org/lebanon/profile-hassan-nasrallah/p11132.

Nasrallah assumed leadership of Hezbollah in 1992 after Israel assassinated his predecessor, co-founder of the group Abbas Musawi.Guy Raz, “Hassan Nasrallah: Mideast Man of the Minute,” National Public Radio, July 18, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5566717. Under Nasrallah’s leadership, Hezbollah has assumed many state functions in Lebanon’s Shiite-majority south by providing a social welfare network, schools, housing, and other services. These activities have boosted Hezbollah’s and Nasrallah’s popularity.Guy Raz, “Hassan Nasrallah: Mideast Man of the Minute,” National Public Radio, July 18, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5566717.

Many in the Middle East view Nasrallah as a heroic figure for appearing to successfully stand up to Israel.Ronen Bergman, “The Fall of Hezbollah’s Leader,” Bloomberg Business, June 24, 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-06-24/the-fall-of-hezbollah-s-leader. Hezbollah claimed credit for forcing Israel to end its 22-year occupation of southern Lebanon in 2000.Marjorie Miller, John Daniszewski, and Tracy Wilkinson, “Israel leaves South Lebanon after 22 years,” Los Angeles Times, May 24, 2000, http://articles.latimes.com/2000/may/24/news/mn-33497. According to National Public Radio’s Guy Raz, “Nasrallah is seen as a hero [throughout the Arab world] — a leader capable of inflicting pain on Israel.”Guy Raz, “Hassan Nasrallah: Mideast Man of the Minute,” National Public Radio, July 18, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5566717. However, Nasrallah’s popularity in Lebanon has suffered since 2012 as a result of Hezbollah’s involvement in the Syrian civil war.“Hezbollah Promises Syria ‘Victory,’” BBC News, May 25, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22669230.

Iran and Hezbollah have maintained strong ties under Nasrallah’s leadership, with Iran providing Hezbollah with financial and military support.Anoushiravan Ehteshami, “The Foreign Policy of Iran,” in The Foreign Policies of Middle East States (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002), 298; Jonathan Masters and Zachary Laub, “Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu’llah),” Council on Foreign Relations, January 3, 2014, http://www.cfr.org/lebanon/hezbollah-k-hizbollah-hizbullah/p9155. In September 2012, Nasrallah pledged to attack Israel if it or the U.S. attacked Iran’s nuclear facilities.Rana Muhammad Taha, “Nasrallah Threatens US on Behalf of Iran,” Daily News Egypt, September 4, 2012, http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/09/04/hezbollah-if-attacked-iran-could-attack-us-bases/. After the January 3, 2020, death of Qasem Soleimani, commander of Quds Force of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps., Nasrallah called for attacks on U.S. military installations around the Middle East.Liz Sly and Sarah Dadouch, “Hezbollah says retribution for Soleimani’s death must target U.S. military, not civilians,” Washington Post, January 5, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/hezbollah-says-retribution-for-soleimanis-death-must-target-us-military-not-civilians/2020/01/05/50869828-2e62-11ea-bffe-020c88b3f120_story.html.

In May 2018, the U.S. Treasury and the Terrorist Financing Targeting Center—which includes the governments of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates—sanctioned Nasrallah along with other top Hezbollah officials. According to U.S. Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin, the sanctions demonstrate a collective rejection of “the false distinction between the so-called ‘Political Wing’ and Hezbollah’s global terrorist plotting.”“U.S. sanctions Hezbollah leader Nasrallah, deputy Qassem,” Reuters, May 16, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-hezbollah-sanctions/u-s-targets-hezbollah-leader-nasrallah-deputy-qassem-with-sanctions-idUSKCN1IH2QA. Previously, the United States designated Nasrallah in January 1995 as a Specially Designated Terrorist under Executive Order 12947 and again in September 2012 under Executive Order 13582 for providing support to the Syrian government.“Treasury Targets Hizballah for Supporting the Assad Regime,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, August 10, 2012, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1676.aspx; “Treasury Designates Hizballah Leadership,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, September 13, 2012, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1709.aspx; “Treasury and the Terrorist Financing Targeting Center Partner Together to Sanction Hizballah’s Senior Leadership” U.S. Department of the Treasury, May 16, 2018, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm0387.

On November 27, 2020, unknown assailants killed senior Iranian nuclear scientist Mohsen Fakhrizadeh in Iran. U.S. intelligence described Fakhrizadeh as the driving force behind Iran’s nuclear program. Some U.S. officials claimed Israel was behind the assassination.Kylie Atwood, “US official says Israel was behind assassination of Iranian scientist,” CNN, December 2, 2020, https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/02/politics/iran-scientist-israel-assassination-us/index.html. In response to the killing, Nasrallah reportedly canceled all travel plans and intended to remain in one undisclosed location out of concern Israel might target him.“Hezbollah chief said to hunker down amid fears he could be targeted by Israel,” Times of Israel, November 29, 2020, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-chief-said-to-hunker-down-amid-fears-he-could-be-targeted-by-israel/. In early December, Kuwaiti media reported that Nasrallah planned to indefinitely relocate—or had already relocated—to Iran. According to the reports, Lebanese and regional intelligence had recorded increased communications between the IRGC and Hezbollah to plan the move.Tzvi Joffre, “Hezbollah’s Nasrallah to move to Iran amid regional tensions – report,” Jerusalem Post, December 3, 2020, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/hezbollahs-nasrallah-to-move-to-iran-amid-regional-tensions-report-650992.

On June 29, 2021, Nasrallah met with Hamas political bureau chief Ismail Haniyeh in Beirut to discuss the fighting between Israel and Gaza-based terror groups led by Hamas, which escalated in May 2021 after Hamas fired rockets into Israel. The two leaders reportedly affirmed the relationship between Hezbollah and Hamas.Aaron Boxerman, “Hamas leader Haniyeh meets Hezbollah chief Nasrallah in Beirut,” Times of Israel, June 29, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-leader-haniyeh-meets-hezbollah-chief-nasrallah-in-beirut/.

Hezbollah remains committed to responding to Israeli airstrikes on open land, with Nasrallah claiming on August 7, 2021 that the group’s actions could escalate in an “appropriate and proportional way” in the future.“Hezbollah chief Nasrallah says group could escalate its response to Israel,” Reuters, August 7, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollah-chief-nasrallah-said-group-could-escalate-response-israel-2021-08-07/. The statement was made following Israel carrying out its first air raids on Lebanese soil in years on August 5th, with Hezbollah launching retaliating attacks the next day.“Hezbollah vows 'suitable and proportionate' response to any Israeli air strikes on Lebanon,” France 24, August 8, 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20210808-hezbollah-vows-suitable-and-proportionate-response-to-any-israeli-air-strikes-on-lebanon.

Following the Taliban’s August 15, 2021 takeover of the Afghan government, Nasrallah delivered a speech in which he called the takeover “the moral downfall of America.” Given the Taliban’s conquest, Nasrallah criticized U.S. support overseas, particularly in Israel, which he conjectured would face a fate similar to Afghanistan if it continues to rely on U.S. support.Aaron Boxerman, “Hezbollah chief: Israel should learn from Afghanistan that US is unreliable,” Times of Israel, August 18, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-head-israel-should-learn-from-afghanistan-that-us-is-unreliable/.

On August 19, Nasrallah announced that an Iranian fuel tanker would sail toward Lebanon—a violation of U.S. sanctions imposed on Tehran—warning Israel and the United States to not intercept the vessel that is expected to set sail that day.“Hezbollah Says Iranian Fuel Tanker to Sail to Lebanon Soon,” Voice of America, August 19, 2021, https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/hezbollah-says-iranian-fuel-tanker-sail-lebanon-soon; “Iranian fuel tanker heads for crisis-hit Lebanon, says Hezbollah,” France 24, August 19, 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/middle-east/20210819-iranian-fuel-tanker-heads-for-crisis-hit-lebanon-says-hezbollah. The fuel would allegedly be used for desperately needed supplies for “hospitals, manufacturers of medicine and food, as well as bakeries and private generators,” in Lebanon. However, some analysts believe the fuel will be sent to Syria and refined there.“Daring Israel and US to act, Hezbollah says Iran fuel tanker to sail to Lebanon,” Times of Israel, August 19, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hezbollah-says-iran-fuel-tanker-to-sail-to-lebanon-dares-israel-and-us-to-act/. Nasrallah announced a few days later on August 22 that a second vessel is set to sail out sometime soon, with the first vessel having allegedly departed from Iran on August 19. According to media sources, the arrival of Iranian fuel—despite the risk of sanctions—will purportedly offset Lebanon’s financial crisis as fuel has run dry and shortages have incited deadly violence throughout the country.“Lebanon's Hezbollah says Iranian fuel vessels setting off soon,” Reuters, August 23, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/lebanons-hezbollah-says-iranian-fuel-vessels-heading-lebanon-2021-08-22/.

As Saudi Arabia has engaged Iran-backed Houthi rebels in Yemen, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf nations have designated Hezbollah as a terrorist group and downgraded their relations with Lebanon. In response, Nasrallah and Hezbollah have stepped up their rhetoric against the Saudi monarchy. In September 2016, Nasrallah declared Saudi Arabia’s Wahhabi ideology to be “more evil than Israel.”“Hezbollah chief prefers Israel over Wahhabism,” Ya Libnan, September 27, 2016, http://yalibnan.com/2016/09/27/hezbollah-chief-prefers-israel-over-wahhabism/; “Nasrallah: Wahhabism ‘more evil’ than Israel,” Times of Israel, September 27, 2016, http://www.timesofisrael.com/nasrallah-wahhabism-more-evil-than-israel/. Thousands of Hezbollah supporters at an October 2016 rally reportedly chanted “Death to the Al Saud,” referring to Saudi Arabia’s ruling family.“Hezbollah sees more conflict in Syria and rising regional tension,” Reuters, October 11, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-hezbollah-idUSKCN12B2FG?il=0. During a January 3, 2022, televised address, Nasrallah accused Saudi Arabia’s King Salman bin Abdul Aziz of exporting ISIS’s ideology and providing cars for suicide attacks in Iraq. Nasrallah further accused Saudi Arabia of participating in a wider conspiracy to destroy the Middle East. Lebanese Prime Minister Najib Mikati’s office soon after issued a statement distancing the Lebanese government from Nasrallah’s address.Kareem Chehayeb, “Hezbollah’s Hassan Nasrallah accuses Saudi Arabia of ‘terrorism,’” Al Jazeera, last updated January 4, 2022, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/3/hezbollahs-nasrallah-accuses-saudi-arabia-of-terrorism. Mikati called Nasrallah’s comments antagonizing Saudi Arabia “not in Lebanon’s interest.”Timour Azhari, “Hezbollah’s criticism of Saudi not in Lebanon’s interest - PM,” Reuters, January 3, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollahs-criticism-saudi-not-lebanons-interest-pm-2022-01-03/.

Through October 2022, Lebanon and Israel was engaged in an international dispute over the Karish gas field in the Mediterranean Sea, which both countries claimed was partly in their territorial waters. On June 5, 2022, a tanker ship owned by London-based hydrocarbon exploration company Energean PLC arrived off the coast of Israel to produce natural gas in conjunction with Israel. Lebanon condemned the ship and called for a renewal of U.S. mediation over the gas field. In a June 9 televised speech, Nasrallah declared Hezbollah is “not afraid of war” and can stop Israel from extracting gas from the maritime field.“Lebanon’s Hezbollah can stop Israeli gas extraction from disputed field, chief says,” Reuters, June 8, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/head-lebanons-hezbollah-says-his-group-has-capacity-prevent-israel-extracting-2022-06-09/. He accused Energean of being “a partner in this attack on Lebanon” and threatened “consequences” for Energean.“Lebanon’s Hezbollah can stop Israeli gas extraction from disputed field, chief says,” Reuters, June 8, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/head-lebanons-hezbollah-says-his-group-has-capacity-prevent-israel-extracting-2022-06-09/; Agence France-Presse, “Lebanon should block Israel gas extraction move: Hezbollah chief,” Al-Monitor, June 9, 2022, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/06/lebanon-should-block-israel-gas-extraction-move-hezbollah-chief. Israel promised to defend its energy infrastructure and rights in the area.“Lebanon Disputes Israel's Right to Develop Karish Offshore Gas Field,” Maritime Executive, June 8, 2022, https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/lebanon-disputes-israel-s-right-to-develop-karish-offshore-gas-field. Lebanon and Israel signed a maritime border agreement on October 27, 2022. Nasrallah declared Hezbollah would end the “exceptional measures and mobilizations” it adopted during negotiations between Israel and Lebanon.Tzvi Joffre, “Hezbollah ends state of alert over maritime border – Nasrallah,” Jerusalem Post, October 27, 2022, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-720784. Nasrallah called the agreement a great victory for Lebanon and Hezbollah. He emphasized Hezbollah’s position against any normalization with Israel, accusing critics of the deal of being blinded by their hatred.Tzvi Joffre, “Hezbollah ends state of alert over maritime border – Nasrallah,” Jerusalem Post, October 27, 2022, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-720784.

After Lebanese President Michel Aoun’s term expired in October 2022, Hezbollah delayed the election of a new president in parliament. Lebanon’s president installs a new government’s ministers, and the parliament is responsible for electing the president. But Hezbollah and its allies prevented a quick selection of a successor to Aoun. Hezbollah claimed it would not support a president who would be subservient to the United States or Israel.“Hezbollah won’t accept new Lebanese president subservient to US, Israeli regime,” Press TV, December 2, 2022, https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2022/12/02/693771/Hezbollah-won%E2%80%99t-accept-new-president-who-would-give-into-US-Israeli-projects--Top-official. In March 2023, Hezbollah announced its support for pro-Syria Christian politician Suleiman Frangieh to become the country’s next president. Frangieh is a former Lebanese minister and reportedly a friend of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad. Nasrallah called him the “natural candidate.”Timour Azhari and Laila Bassam, “Lebanon's Hezbollah backs Christian politician Frangieh for presidency,” Reuters, March 6, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/lebanons-hezbollah-backs-christian-politician-frangieh-presidency-2023-03-06/.

During a July 12, 2023, speech marking the 17th anniversary of the start of the Second Lebanon War, Nasrallah refuted rumors Hezbollah wanted to cancel the Taif Accord—which ended Lebanon’s civil war—and end Lebanon’s system of tripartite power-sharing. Turning to Lebanon’s presidential crisis, Nasrallah said Hezbollah had faith in former president Michel Aoun that “the back of the resistance was secure and would not be stabbed.”“Nasrallah says Shebaa tent aimed at highlighting occupation of Ghajar, other areas,” Naharnet, July 12, 2023, https://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/298930-nasrallah-says-shebaa-tent-aimed-at-highlighting-occupation-of-ghajar-other-areas. He reaffirmed Hezbollah’s choice of Franjieh as Lebanon’s president but said his group was open to discussion and would “not use the force of the resistance to impose anything inside the country.”“Nasrallah says Shebaa tent aimed at highlighting occupation of Ghajar, other areas,” Naharnet, July 12, 2023, https://www.naharnet.com/stories/en/298930-nasrallah-says-shebaa-tent-aimed-at-highlighting-occupation-of-ghajar-other-areas.

On October 7, 2023, one day after the 50th anniversary of the Yom Kippur War, Hamas—with Iranian support—launched a multi-pronged attack on Israel, killing hundreds and taking over 200 hostages into Gaza. Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; “Israeli forces conducting ‘wide-scale strikes’ on Hamas centers in Gaza. Here’s everything you need to know,” CNN, October 9, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/israel-hamas-gaza-attack-10-09-23/h_adebb4147fc4a83751908555ec54b8c0. The United States sent warships to the region as a warning to Hezbollah and other regional actors not to get involved. On October 13, Hezbollah deputy leader Naim Qassem proclaimed Hezbollah was “fully ready” to join the war and U.S. warnings would have no effect on its decision. “Hezbollah says calls for it not to intervene in war ‘will have no effect,’” Reuters, October 13, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollah-says-when-time-comes-any-action-we-will-carry-it-out-2023-10-13/. Since the start of the war, Hezbollah launched multiple anti-tank missiles toward Israeli positions in northern Israel. On November 3, Nasrallah gave his first speech on the ensuing war. Calling Hamas’s October 7 surprise attack a “heroic act,” Nasrallah declared Hezbollah had been engaged in the war since October 8. Timothy H.J. Nerozzi, “Hezbollah leader praises 'heroic' Hamas terror attack, threatens to expand fight against Israel,” Fox News, https://www.foxnews.com/world/hezbollah-leader-praises-heroic-hamas-terror-attack-threatens-to-expand-fight-against-israel. He also claimed that Israeli forces were in fact responsible for Hamas’s Oct 7 massacre of Israeli citizens. “Hezbollah’s Nasrallah blames IDF for massacre of Israelis,” Jerusalem Post, November 3, 2023, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-771576. Nasrallah reiterated that Hezbollah is not intimidated by American threats. He in turn threatened to strike U.S. forces. He also warned Israel against going further in its assault on Hamas, promising to kill “a civilian for a civilian.”Gianluca Pacchiani, “‘A civilian for a civilian’: Nasrallah threatens attacks against Israelis, US troops in region,” Times of Israel, November 3, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/a-civilian-for-a-civilian-nasrallah-threatens-attacks-against-israelis-us-troops-in-region/.